Evolution of Local Government in Nigeria, Pre-Colonial Nigeria, and Nationalism (WASSCE, WAEC, NECO, JAMB) by Drake Omonode

 Evolution of Local Government in Nigeria

Local Governments arose originally out of the need of the colonial governments to reach the ordinary people in the colonized territories. During the colonial era, Local Government took on different forms in different parts of the country. In the North, there was a single native authority system, which had a chief and a sort of governing council ruling over the territories. The British found it useful since the North was vast and would thus have been difficult to govern from one centre. Through the chiefs, the British reached the natives. The South had a different sort of local government system. It had various administrative tiers like the multiplier local government system practiced in Great Britain. They established county councils, municipal councils, urban councils, district councils, etc. Each of these councils operated in the areas and provided similar services to the people.

The regions that had tiers of local government were: Eastern Region (2 tiers); Western Region and Midwestern Region (3 tiers), Lagos (1 tiers). After Independence in 1960, the 1963 Constitution limited the scope of local government to matters of direct concern to the locals, e.g. market, feeder roads, motor parks, etc. The multiple tiers of local government was retained it was after the local government Reforms of 1976 that the local government became a single tier of government.

Structure of Local Government

The Local Government has the following structure:

1. The Policy Making Body, which is composed of:

• The Executive Chairman

The Vice Chairman

• Supervisory Councilors

• Councilors.

 

2. The Executive Body, which is composed of:

• The Secretary - Chief executive

• Heads of Departments, and

• Subordinate Staff

3. The Departments in the Local Government Council:

·         General and Administration Department - Headed by the Deputy Secretary

·         Treasury Department-Headed by the Treasurer

·         Works Department-Headed by the Civil Engineer/Technical Officer

·         Health Department-Headed by the Principal Health Superintendent

·         The Maternity Division of the Medical Department-Headed by the Senior Midwifery Sister

·         The Dispensary Division of the Medical Department-Headed by the Higher Pharmacy Officer:

·         The Dispensary Division of the Medical Department-Headed by the Higher Pharmacy Officer:

·         The newly introduced Farm Division is to be headed by the Farm Manager.

Each arm of the policy making body as well as the executive department, had specific functions to perform. These constitute the functions of Local Government in Nigeria.

The Place of Traditional Rulers: In order to preserve the traditional position of the Obas and Chiefs, The government decided that, there should be a Traditional Council for each Local Government authority area or a group of Local Government authority areas over which a traditional ruler has suzerainty.

A. Traditional Council consists of traditional office holders, the Chairman of the Local Government authority, one or two traditional representatives of each Local Government authority council, as may be considered appropriate and any other person(s) who may be desired, in order to make the traditional Council broadly representative of the major facets of life in the entire area.

Sources of Local Government Finance

1. Federal Government Grants. The major source of local government funding is grants from federal government.

2. Grants from state Government. In Nigeria the constitution requires each state government to allocate a certain proportion of its revenue to the local governments in its state.

3. Loans: local government authorities raise money by obtaining loans from financial institutions and organizations. These loans assist the councils to carry out some specific projects.

4. Taxes: local government authorities raise a lot of revenue by collecting income tax from non salary earners residing within their areas of jurisdiction.

5. Local Rates: Local Government collect rates within their localities such as water, market stall, motor parks, rates etc. A very good example is the daily payments bikes make (pay) at Okhun Junction

6. License Fees: License fees such as bicycle, dogs, radio, television, canoe, etc, are also sources of revenue to local government. Under normal circumstances, the mentioned items (bicycles etc) are licensed by the local government especially when used for commercial purposes.

7. Tenement Rate: Local Governments are expected to levy rates on privately owned houses

8. Court Fees: fines imposed on offenders in customary courts generate revenue to local governments.

9. Investments: they sometimes invest in business schemes like transport services or buying shares from which dividends accrue to them.

 

Relationship between Local Government, State and Federal Government

1. Establishment of Local Government: The creation of local government through a constitutional provision is the responsibility of the central or state government.

2. Provision of Grants: The federal government pays a certain percentage of the federation revenue to local government. So also does the state government, while both give additional grants towards special projects embarked upon by local governments.

3. Approval of Budget, by-laws and major projects: The state governments is charged with approving the local government’s annual budgetary estimates, bylaws, major projects and strategies of implementation.

4. Auditing of Accounts: The state government also audits local government accounts and investigate cases of corruption and incompetence.

5. Dissolution of Local Government: As a subordinate of federal/state government, the central government has the power to dissolve a local government if the need arises.

6. Supervision of Local Government: The various ministries of central/state government supervise the various projects of local governments as they concern these ministries.

7. Appointment and discipline of Staff: The Local Government Service Commission and the Department of Local Government in the state governor’s office supervise the appointment, promotion, transfer and discipline of senior local government employees.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT REFORMS

Roles of Traditional Rulers in Local Government

The traditional rulers have the following roles:

1. To advise local government authority on matters referred to them by elected councils

2. To discuss common problems facing the community and make suggestions to the local government authority.

3. They mobilize the people of their community on the need to support the local government authority in the area for the purpose of community development.

4. They are seen as the representative of the government at the grass-root level.

5. They also help the state governor, and the local Government chairman by working together with them to ensure stability, peace and good governance in their area.

6. Traditional rulers are to advise and determine customary laws and practices in all matters referred to them including land matters and Chieftaincy issues.

7. They also give advice to policy makers as regards how a certain policy might affect the people of a community.

The 1976 Local Government Reforms

As a result of the shortcomings of different local government systems since the amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914, the federal government under the Murtala/Obasanjo administration effected a uniform local government administration throughout the country in 1976. The reform was meant to harmonize their structure and functions.

The main features of the reforms are:

1. Uniform Local Administration: The 1976 reform introduced a uniform system whereby the native authorities, municipal councils, district and county councils were scraped and replaced with the title of local government councils nationwide.

2. Statutory Roles: the reform created statutory functions for the Local Governments. For instance they were required to provide dispensaries, maternity home, pay the salaries of primary school teachers and maintain school building.

3. Third Tier of Government: Local governments became the third tier government of the federation and were granted limited governmental powers over certain subjects.

4. Full Time Service: the reform introduced a full-time chairman as the chief executive of the local government with supervisory councilors as heads of departments or committees (on finance, and economic development, health, education, youths, etc)

5. Condition of Service: the reforms harmonized the conditions of service of local government personnel with the personnel of state and federal government.

6. Appointment and Discipline: the federal government introduced the local government service board or commission throughout the country to control appointments, promotion, transfer and discipline of local government employees.

8. Position of Traditional Rulers: they were mandated to establish a traditional or emirate council whose primary responsibility was to maintain peace, law and order within their domains.

9. The reforms excluded traditional rulers from the local government councils.

10. The federal government became directly involved in the administration of the local government by providing policy guidelines to be implemented at the local level.

11. The local governments were given take-off grants to enable them provide infrastructure for the people.

 

Problems of Local Governments include the following:

1. Mismanagement of Funds: personnel of local government are in the habit of mismanaging funds at their disposal through embezzlement or embarking on wasteful projects.

2. Lack of Trained and Experienced Personnel: Local governments do not have enough professionally qualified and experienced technicians, craftsmen, other workers and administrators who can work effectively. This is partly due to the unattractiveness of local government systems.

3. Political Interference: State and federal government unnecessarily hinder local government programme and policies (even where they do not contradict current statutes or policies).

4. Bribery and Corruption: Bribery and corruption involving the officials of local governments undermine the effective performance of the local government administration.

5. Tribalism, Nepotism and Favouritism: these feature in the appointment, promotion, discipline and transfer of local government staff. Thus, efficiency and effectiveness are pushed to the background.

6. Poor Conditions of Service: The conditions of service in the local governments are often very poor.

7. Over Staffing: This is a serious problem which local governments contend with, as they are forced to utilize the bulk of their lean resources to pay staff salaries.

8. Poor attitude to work: employees of local government may exhibit poor attitude to work.

9. Illiteracy: Illiteracy among the councillors leads to poor legislative output.

10. Poor communication: There has been examples breakdown in communication times past. This has created friction between the local government personnel and the people within the local government (in some areas).

Measures to Improve Local Government Administration

1. Transparency: Transparency is the foundation of accountability. Local government officials should be concerned with increasing transparency and making data more readily available to the citizens. It will allow people to see what their government spent their money on.

3. Honesty: honesty is being loyal to the people that they are serving. Local government officials should be able to fulfill their electoral promises. They should learn to be honest by showing loyalty to the people, telling and showing people their budget, fulfilling their electoral promises and operating an open door policy

4. Integrity: this is the quality of having and manifesting good moral principles. When the local government officials are men with integrity there will be good values in the society.

5. Statutory Allocation: there should be provision of statutory allocation from the central and state governments so that they can provide the required services to the people.

6. Political Autonomy: political autonomy should be given to local governments and they should be free from political control.

7. Training Programme: there should be training and retraining of local government staff for effective performance.

8. Creation of New Local Government: creation of new local governments should be based on national interest of Nigeria and viability and not on political or sentimental considerations.

 

NIGERIAN PRECOLONIAL GOVERNMENT

Prior to the arrival of colonial masters in Africa, the people of Africa had their own unique system of political organization. There were structures and institutions responsible for law making, implementation, interpretation and adjudication. Pre-colonial political system refers to the method of political administration adopted in Africa before the advent of the colonial masters.

These political systems (in ancient Nigeria) include:

·         The Hausa/Fulani emirate system

·         The Yoruba political system

·         The Igbo political system

The Hausa/Fulani Pre-colonial Emirate System

Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial political system can be credited to the Holy war (Jihad) fought by Uthman dan Fodio in 1804. It reigned in the Northern part of Nigeria covering areas like Kaduna, Sokoto, Kano, Zaria, etc. The system of government adopted was monarchical in nature and was popularly regarded as a highly centralized method of administration. The Hausa/Fulani has also been described as an Emirate system with Emirs as the head of each emirate. There were two headquarters, in Sokoto and in Gwandu headed by Emirs of Sokoto and Gwandu respectively. Islamic law was adopted as the guiding principle of the administration. More importantly, the Emir was an absolute ruler because there was no principle of checks and balances as epitomized by the pre-colonial Yoruba administration.

However, the main political institutions in pre-colonial Hausa/Fulani Emirates include the paramount ruler (Emir), Emir’s ministers, District Heads (Hakimi), the village heads and the Alkali court. The Emir was the head of an emirate, vested with legislative, executive and judicial powers. He was an absolute ruler. That is, the Emir was supreme in decision making and whatsoever he ordered must be carried out, though with the tenet of Islamic laws called Sharia. Therefore, the Emir was both the political and religious head because he ensured that the provisions of Sharia were adequately followed without any reservation. Emir’s court was the highest and final court of the land. The Emir had the right to levy taxes and decisions made could not be changed by anybody.

More importantly, the Emir had an advisory council which helped in the day to day administration of the Emirate. These groups of people were popularly regarded as the Emir’s ministers assigned to various offices for the purpose of administration. They included the Waziri, Galadima, Madawaki, Dogari, Maaji, and Sarkin Ruwa. The functions of these officials will be highlighted subsequently.

The Waziri can be regarded as the senior official and head of administration. Like a modern-day prime minster, he was in charge of all ministries and carried out the day to day administrative responsibility on behalf of the Emir.

Galadima is best known as the administrator of the capital of the emirate. That is, he was in charge of Emir’s capital territory.

The Madawaki can be regarded as the commander of the Calvary (i.e. Commander of the Army). Specifically, he is known as the Modern Day Chief of Defence Staff.

The Dogari is known as the chief of police. In the contemporary world, Dogari is regarded as Inspector General of Police (IG) whose responsibility is that of security.

The Maaji stood as treasurer in charge of treasury. That is, Maaji was in charge of financial activities just like the Governor of Central Bank.

The Sarkin Ruwa was the minister in charge of fishery. He organized fishing festival under the jurisdiction of the Emir.

Sarkin Pawa was the head of butchers.

Sarkin Fada on the other hand was head of Emir’s workers.

The Emirate system was divided into a number of districts headed by ‘Hakimi. However, Hakimi was regarded as district head whose responsibility was that of tax collector. Taxes like Jangali (cattle tax) was collected by the Hakimi on behalf of the Emir. Hence, he was responsible to the Emir. Other taxes collected were Kharaj on land, Zakat on properties etc. In the same vein, each district was divided into villages headed by village heads. The village heads helped to maintain peace and order in the village administration. They were the ones helping the Hakimi to collect tax both of whom were responsible to the Emir.

The Alkali court took charge of judicial administration of the emirate under Islamic tenets called Sharia. However, this Sharia law was administered by the appointed Islamic judges known as Alkali headed by Chief Alkali or Grand Khadi.

Finally, Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial administration was highly centralized and hierarchical in nature. Also, there was no principle of checks and balance as compared to pre-colonial Yoruba system.

Structure of the Hausa/Fulani Pre-colonial Administration

In a nutshell, the Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial administration was structured as follows:

Central Administration

For effective administration, the Hausa Empire was divided into two zones, the eastern and western zones. The eastern zone had its capital at Sokoto while the western zone had its capital at Gwandu.

The Emirate

In order to make the work of administration easy, the government was divided into emirates under the leadership of the Emir. The Emirs were appointed by the Sultan of Sokoto. In making these appointments, the descendants of Uthman Dan Fodio were given preferences. These emirs had power to administer their territory based on Islamic principles. The emirates were subject to the authority of the emir of Gwandu and the sultan of Sokoto.

The District

The emirates were further divided into districts. The districts were administered by district heads called Hakimi (district head). The district head with their assistants made laws and executed them (subordinate to that of the Emirs). They collect tax and taught Islam. However, they referred some issues and major decisions to their emirs.

The Village

The district were further divided into villages. Each village head was appointed by the district head. Each village head make law for the progress, order and good government of his village. He also created such law and also referred important issues to the district head.

The Ward

The ward was made up of groups of compounds. The head of the wards was appointed by the village head and could be dismissed by him. The ward head also make laws and implement them in their various ways.

The Hausa/Fulani political system was hierarchical in structure with power and authority flowing from the central level to the ward heads. This chain of authority is represented below.

1. The Emir is the head of an emirate, vested with legislative, executive and judicial power. He is an absolute ruler. That is, the Emir is supreme in decision making and whatsoever he ordered must be carried out, though with the tenet of Islamic laws called Sharia. Therefore, the Emir is both the political and religious head because he ensures that the provisions of Sharia are adequately followed without any reservation. Emir’s court was the highest and final. Emir has the right to levy tax and decision made can’t be changed by anybody. More importantly, the Emir had an advisory council which helped in the day-to-day administration of

The Emirate which included the following:

2. The Galadima: Galadima serve as minister of the capital territory and was in charge of the general administration of the capital of the emirate. When the emir is out of the capital, he acted for him until he returns. In other words, he was the deputy.

3. Waziri: The Waziri can be regarded as the senior official and head of administration. Like a modern day prime minster, he is in charge of all ministries and carry out the day to day administrative responsibility on behalf of the Emir. He is the head of service for the Emir. He advises the Emir on the appointment of officials and took charge of important ceremonial duties. It was his duty to inform other member of his council about all meetings of the Emir’s council. He was also a member of the panel of king makers.

4. Madawaki: He is the Calvary commander or commander of the army / military forces in defence of the emirate against enemies.

5. Sakın Fada: He was the chief palace officer. He was in charge of administering those who worked within the palace including the emirs praise singers.

6. The Maaji Head of treasury. He serves as the minister of finance and also the treasurer. He was for safe keeping of the emirs revenue.

Other Administrative Officers

1. Sakin rawa: officer in charge of water resources.

2. Sakin Pawa: officer in charge of butchers.

3. Dogari: chief police officer.

4. Yari: officer in charge of prisons.

Forms of Taxation in the Emirates.

To generate funds for the treasury, the following taxes were collected:

1. Kharaj: Land tax based on annual yield or production.

2. Jangali: It is tax based on livestock or animal tax, that is, tax paid on goats, sheep, cattle, donkeys, etc.

3. Lizya: This is a tax levied on the subjects like slaves, aliens or strangers.. 4. Zakat: It is a tax on movable properties to provide alms for the poor, the needy and widows.

Functions of the Emir in the Hausa/Fulani Traditional Political System

1. The Emir appointed officials e.g. Madawaki, Waziri, Galadima, Hakimi, to assist in administering the emirates.

2. He provided social services for the people.

3. He organized his people for communal work. E.g. road constructions, Emir’s palace sanitation, etc.

4. He organized his people for the defense of the emirate.

5. He enforced the Sharia (Islamic law) throughout the emirate.

6. He was the spiritual head of the emirate.

7. He presided over the emir’s court as the judge. Only few cases went to the Sultan on appeal.

8. He maintained law and order in the emirate.

9. He imposed and collected taxes. e.g. haraji, jangali (cattle tax) and tributes.

10. The emir was the supreme ruler of his subjects.

11. He made laws over the areas under his jurisdiction.

12. He allocated farmland to the people.

13. He performed ceremonial functions. e.g. Dubar

14. He honoured brave warriors and conferred traditional titles on worthy citizens.

 

Igbo Precolonial Government

The Igbos, unlike the Yorubas and the Fulanis, had a complex and complicated system of administration in pre-colonial era. There was no sort of central authority. What they had was a diffusion of political authority into different groups. These groups that shared political authority included the village elders, the age grades, the Ozo title holders, Ofo title holders, diviners etc. This is the main reason why the Igbo political organization in the pre-colonial era was described as acephalous.

The Igbo pre-colonial administration was therefore based on the principle of village democracy which thrives on the patrilineal family group known as Umunna. Therefore, the village made up of kindred is the basic unit of political organization. There are two main groups of institutions that made up the village government, these are the council of elders (Ama-ala) made up of heads of families who held staff of authority called Ofo and the village assembly made up of all grown up male members of the village (Ohana-eze). Political power was not centralized or concentrated in one hand but scattered which made the society egalitarian. There was no supreme king like the Oba in Yoruba, and Emirs in the North.

Interestingly, however, each village in Igbo society is normally administered like a Republic, independent or Sovereign state. Be that as it may, there exist many institutions in the pre-colonial Igbo society, charged with the responsibility of judicial, legislative and executive functions like: the family group, village council, Ozo title holder, age grades and the Ala.

Structures and Roles of the Components of Igbo Precolonial Government

1. The Family Group: This is one of the most recognized institutions in pre-colonial Igbo society as the basic unit of every political institution. It comprises people of the same family. Each family group was autonomously headed by the title holder called The Okpara (who controls the family and judges any family disputes). He performs ritual and ceremonial functions on behalf of the family.

2. Village Council: This is popularly known as council of elders. it comprises of all the family heads in the village. However, the most important thing is that each village was administered as a SOVEREIGN ENTITY and each family heads (Okpara) were reckoned or named as title holders in (each of) the villages. This office had the responsibility of discussing matters that affected the life of the citizens within their villages. They also help in maintaining law and order in the society as well as settlement of dispute between or among groups of families. The chairman of this council is known as the oldest of the OKPARAS.

3. Ozo Title Holders: This can be seen as the highest title of honour which is given to specific individuals in pre-colonial Igbo society. To become an Ozo title holder, one must be prestigious, popular and wealthy. The most amazing thing is that the position is not hereditary. Ozos are highly influential. They settle and adjudicate on different disputes. They also rendered valuable advice to the family heads (the Okparas).

4. Amala Oha: This is an institution of government as it is a form of general assembly. In this assembly, all adult male members meet to perform legislative functions. In ancient times, Amala Oha meetings were held in the village square, and the decisions of the assembly in matters affecting the village or individual were final.

5. Age grade: This is another important institution in pre-colonial Igbo society. They are a group of young men on the basis of age. These age grades carry out lots of responsibilities like maintenance of peace and order, sanitation of the community, helping each other during harvesting period, enforcement of law, etc.

6. The Ala: This is another political institution in pre-colonial Igbo society. Ala is popularly known as the goddess of the land. Cases like murder, homicide, etc. is judged by the Ala. To any Ala, there is a priest called Ala priest who interprets the pronouncement of the Ala. This explains Igbos belief in Amadioha, Igwe-ka-ala, Ogbaegbu, etc. in terms of needs.

In a nutshell, the Igbos are a segmentary, republican, fragmentary people and sovereign in nature, because unlike other ethnic groups in Nigeria, they did not build any strong centralized state. They were simply regarded as a Chiefless people. The village was the centre of government where final decisions were taken by Elders from every family in a form of Gerontocracy. All lineages including Males and Females (adults) in the village also participated in the political process. The age grade and titled societies were the major instrument of government. The life of every individual in Igbo land is highly respected, and recognition of an individual was not based on family background but on personal capabilities and age. The elders form the core of the village administration. The male population is divided into age grades corresponding with the youth, middle age or able bodied men and elders. Each age group has its own special rights, duties, obligations and responsibilities within the village.

Features of the Igbo Precolonial Government

1. Powers were decentralized

2. It was republic in Nature.

3. There was no organized system of taxation

4. There was no separation of powers

5. It featured direct democracy when it comes to decision making

 

Precolonial Political Administration in Yorubaland (Old Oyo Empire)

It was generally believed that the Yoruba people migrated into Nigeria from Upper Egypt under their powerful father, Oduduwa. They occupied the Western part of Nigeria and the system of government practiced was monarchical in nature. It is regarded as a centralized administration ruled by king with the assistance of other chiefs. It is important to note that the Yoruba pre-colonial administration was not highly centralized compared to Hausa/Fulani system. The reason being that the Oba is not an absolute ruler and there is the principle of checks and balances. Examples of Yoruba kingdoms include the Oyo kingdom, ljesha, llesha, Ijebu, Abeokuta, etc. In this case, Oyo Empire will be taken as a case study.

The system of government of old Oyo Empire in the period before the 1800 was like most other kingdoms and empires that existed in Africa. It was monarchical in nature that was based on the principles of checks and balances. This system was based on the principle of inheritance known as patrilineality. The government of the empire thrived along four major organs, which acted as a check on each other.

Organs/Political Institutions of the Yoruba Precolonial Political System

The Alaafin

The first organ was the king as the Alaafin. Although Alaafin was a supreme king but he was not a dictator. He ruled according to the advice of the council of the Oyomesi. Though the Alaafin must seek the advice of the Oyomesi, it was not under compulsion for him to accept all the piece of advice given to him (by the oyomesi). It was the constitutional function of the Alaafin to appoint the army general, but such appointment was subject to the approval of the Oyomesi. The Alaafin had other assistants in the discharge of his onerous responsibilities in the empire like Otun-Efa- head of the diety of Sango, Ona-Efa-headed the empires of the judiciary. The Osi-Efa takes charge of the finances of the empire, etc.

The Oyomesi

The second organ of the government of old Oyo Empire was the Council of Oyomesi, members of the Council of Oyomesi were the non-royal aristocratic group of king-maker chiefs. The Oyomesi (ie. The Council) was made up of seven chiefs representing the seven wards to which Oyo metropolitan capital was divided into. The Council was led by Bashorun, who could be regarded as the Prime Minister of the empire. One of the duties of the Council was to appoint a new Oba. They could also remove any obstinate Oba from office by asking the king to commit suicide through the presentation of an empty calabash to the king with a parrot egg inside which is seen as a symbol of rejection of the king. Such removal must be approved by the Ogboni to check the Oyomesi

Other Functions of the Oyomesi

1. They take part in the selection of a new Alaafin

2. They initiate laws

3. They ensured implementation of policies

4. They perform religious functions

5. They perform judicial functions.

6. They acted as checks on the powers of the Alaafin. For instance, removal of Alaafin from office.

7. They perform judicial functions.

8. They assist in the organization of youths for communal development.

9. They advise the Alaafin on good governance.

10. They help in the maintenance of law and order.

11. They take part in the installation of a new Alaafin

The Ogboni Cult

This cult on the other hand is often regarded as a secret cult because their activities are much hidden from the public. They perform rituals on behalf of the society, and also check the excesses of both the Oba and king makers (oyomesi). The Ogboni is headed by the Oluwo. The following were the functions of the Ogboni:

Functions of the Ogboni

1. They acted as a check on the excesses of the Oyomesi such as the rejection of an Alaafin

2. Mediation between an Alaafin and the Oyomesi council of state in instances of dispute

3. They perform religious functions especially involving cases of spilling of blood

3. They consult the Ifa Oracle.

4. They perform rituals to appease the gods and atone for the sins of the people.

5. They initiate new members into the Ogboni cult

6. They enforce law and order in the society.

7. They defend the Oba and the kingdom

8. They help in presentation of good governance.

9. They check the excesses of the Oba and the Oyomesi

The Esos or Warlords

This is a group of people provide adequate security in the Yoruba kingdom. They helped to protect the life and properties of the people and prevented the community from both internal and external aggression. It is headed by the Aare Ona Kakanfo who provides military support to the king. He is abnormally powerful and that explains why he stays outside the community. More importantly, Aare Ona Kakanfo is expected to commit suicide if he loses any battle which means he must not be defeated at the war front. Nevertheless, he checks the excesses of any institution by withdrawing or neglecting military responsibility.

Functions of the Army Organization

1. They defend the empire against external attack

2. They advise the king on security matters.

3. They quell any political crisis in the empire.

It was a constitutional provision that if the empire’s army suffers any shameful defeat, the Aare-Ona-Kakanfo must commit suicide. However, many army generals like Afonja refused to commit suicide after suffering such defeat instead decided to go on exile. He later went on to secure the independence of Ilorin from Oyo Empire. In order to insulate Aare-Ona-Kakanfo from politics he was forbidden from entering the capital city.

Finally, Provincial administrators were also used in the Old Oyo Empire. The provinces were administered by Obas and Baales depending on the sizes but were subordinate to the Alaafin. They were responsible for collections of taxes in their area of domain and payment of homage to the Alaafin as a mark of loyalty to him. They also maintained law and order. They can also check the excesses of any recalcitrant Alaafin by invoking the god of thunder and lightning through the cult of Sango

Features of the Traditional Yoruba Political System

1. The system was based on constitutional monarchy.

2. There was the existence of a council of senior chiefs.

3. There was an informal system of taxation example tributes paid in form of labour, yam, kolanuts and animals by subordinates, towns to the paramount ruler.

4. There was a system of checks and balances within the political system.

5. There was the Oba as the paramount ruler.

6. The Oba and his senior chiefs met regularly to discuss issues that would promote peace, success and good governance.

7. Existence of secret societies example is the Ogboni.

8. Existence of a standing army headed by Aare-Ona-Kakanfo.

9. Existence of Chief Priest.

10. There was a process of law-making, execution and adjudication.

11. Existence of king-makers, example is Oyomesi.

12. Rulership was hereditary. No fixed tenure of office (it was for life).

 

The main political institutions of the pre-colonial societies included:

1. The paramount chiefs.

2. The Council of elders.

3. Secret Societies

4. Age grades.

5. Religious organizations.

Functions and Powers of Paramount Chiefs

1. They acted as the supreme rulers of their various communities.

2. They performed religious functions as high priest of all religious cults

3. They controlled commerce and trade in their various communities.

4. They perform legislative functions of law-making in their various communities.

5 They ensured the defense of their communities.

Functions and Powers of The Council of Elders

1. The council of elders saw to the installation and deposition of the paramount chiefs

2. The council acted as adviser to the paramount chief,

3. The council ensured the maintenance of law and order

4. It gave recognition to age grades and assigned duties to them 5. The council acted as the law making body

4. It gave recognition to age grades and assigned duties to them

5. The council acted as the law making body.

6. It checked the activities of the paramount chief

7. It performed religious functions.

8. It performed judicial functions of having appeals from lower groups etc.

9. It approved when the community will go to war

 

Functions and Powers of Secret Societies

1. They perform rituals intended to ward off evil spirits, appeal the gods to atone for the sins of members of the community

2. Secret societies checked abuse of power by paramount chiefs and council of elders

3. They educate their members and other members of the community on spiritual matters.

4. They served as repository of the ancient Art and culture. They act as agents of socialization.

5. They play both military and police functions

7. They also enforce the law.

Functions and Powers of Age Grades

1. Age grades helped to defend their communities against both internal and external aggression.

2. They carry out civil and communal works.

3. They help in the execution of policies and decisions made in the community

4. They perform ceremonial functions during important occasions in their communities.

5. They checked wrong use of powers by paramount chiefs and council of elders.

6. They perform police duties in maintaining and enforcing law and order.

Functions and Powers of Religious Organizations

1. They played mediation role between the people and their ancestors.

2. They perform rituals to usher in good harvest

3. They ensure peaceful society by maintaining law and order.

4. They give the people special protection against evil or ill luck

5. They perform judicial function through their settlement of disputes between people of the community.

Comparison of the Hausa Fulani Pre-colonial Political System and the Igbo Traditional Political System

1. The Hausa Fulani political emirate was monarchical, headed by a king while the Igbo traditional political system was republican in nature, headed by no queen or king

2. Political power was exercised by the Emir and his council of advisers while power was exercised by the Council of elders by consensus.

3. The Hausa Fulani political emirate was centralized while, the Igbo political system was decentralized.

4. The Hausa Fulani political emirate legislative function was performed by the Emir and his council while the Igbo political system, law-making functions was performed by the council of elders and the general assembly

5. In the Hausa-Fulani political system, judicial matters rested with the Emir and his Council (Alkali Courts). The Emir’s court was the highest in the land while In the Igbo political system, the council of elders and title holders Nze-na-ozo administered justice.

6. Theocratic system or Islamic laws and customary laws were used in the Hausa Fulani political system while Igbo tradition political system used customary laws only

7 The emirs served as both political and religious head in the Hausa-Political system while The Chief Priest in Igboland, handled religious matters.

Comparison of the Yoruba Pre-colonial Political System and the Igbo Traditional Political System

1. The political organization of the Yoruba kingdom was semi-centralised with an Oba as the head of government while the Ibo political system lack centralization and had no paramount ruler as head of the society

2. Succession to the throne of an Oba was hereditary through the royal linage whereas the ibo political system rotated the stool of Opara on the bases of seniority in age and family.

3. The political organization of the Yoruba kingdom had checks and balances, while the fact that nobody or organ could wield autocratic powers itself served this purpose in the Ibo system

4. The Oba-in-Council formulated governmental policies in the Yoruba kingdom, but decisions were collectively taken by the consensus of the title holders, Council of elders, age grade and the entire village assembly among the Ibo.

5. The Yoruba Obas appointed lesser chiefs called Bales to rule the villages while the Okpara or Obi had no power to appoint officials, and his power did not go beyond his village.

6. The activities of the age grade societies were more pronounced in the Ibo political system than the Yorubas

7. The Yoruba Obas receive tributes and other dues while Ibo leaders did not

Comparison of the Hausa Fulani Pre-colonial Political System and Yoruba Pre-colonial Political System

1. The Hausa Fulani governmental system was centralized and ruled by an Emir while the Yoruba kingdom was semi-centralised and headed by an Oba

2. The Emir exercises absolute executive, legislative, and judicial functions, whereas the Yoruba governmental system was based on checks and balances by various organ of government.

3. The council of officials in the Hausa Fulani empire were mainly advisory in nature but the council of chiefs in Yoruba kingdom were so powerful they could remove an Oba from the throne. He had to accept their opinion.

4. The governmental system of the Hausa Fulani empire was based on the Islamic religion, whereas the system of government in the Yoruba kingdom was based on the customs and tradition of the people

5. The Hausa Fulani judicial system was based on the Islamic body of laws with the Emir presiding over the final court of appeal. However, laws in Yoruba land had to be made by the Oba in Council who also together decided the cases and dispute brought before them.

6. The Ogboni fraternity perform rituals on behalf of the community in the Yoruba, while there was no place for secret societies or rituals in the Hausa-Fulani empires.

7. The district and village heads collected fixed taxes on behalf the Emir while there were no fixed taxes in the Yoruba land. The village heads (Bales) only pay tributes annually.

 

Colonial rule in Nigeria

Meaning of Colonialism

Colonialism can be defined as the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically. It can also be referred to as the establishment, exploitation, maintenance, acquisition, and expansion of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory. It is a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between the colonists and the indigenous population. It also means the policy or practice of a wealthy or powerful nation maintaining or extending its control over other countries. One challenge one may encounter is the interchangeable use of the term “colonialism” and “imperialism” which often, although erroneously, suggests both possess the same meaning. However, no matter the similarities that exist between both, there is a clear demarcation. Imperialism refers to political or economic control, either formally or informally and colonialism is where one nation assumes formal control over the other. In simple words, imperialism is the idealogy driving the practice of colonialism.

Central Administration

The central administration was headed by the Governor. He was appointed by the secretary of state for the colonies who had the power to remove or redeploy him. The Governor was responsible for administration of the whole country and was accountable to the imperial government in London through the Secretary of State. The Governor is the president of both the legislative and executive councils. He makes and executes policies, appoint and depose chiefs and appoint officials of government. He assisted in legislation, can veto legislation, review judgments by the judiciary and exercise prerogative of mercy. The legislative council was another institution of central administration. The council was made up of the governor, official and unofficial members. The elective principle introduced by the Clifford Constitution (1922) re-organized the council to provide for four elected African members. The legislative council had more representatives with the Richards Constitution. The role of the legislative council was to advice the governor in framing legislation for the colony, but the governor was not bound to accept its advice.

Whenever the governor overrides the advice or decision of the council he must inform the secretary of states for the colonies of his actions. The executive council was responsible for the formulation of colonial government policy and for carrying out the laws of the colony. The council was an advisory body to the governor. The governor had powers to reject the decisions or advice of the council. Under the Macpherson constitution of 1951, the executive council became known as council of ministers.

Crown Colony

A crown colony was regarded as British territory and it was directly controlled from Britain. The laws made in Britain were applied to these colonies. Crown colonies were established through military conquests, diplomatic missions and treaties with the local people. For instance, the colony of Lagos was annexed in 1861 by John Beecroft of the British Royal Navy. The citizens of the crown colony were regarded as British subjects. The land and minerals located in the crown colonies belong to the British government. The crown colonial government administered the colony directly, while the governor made laws through proclamations. At the crown colonies the traditional rulers were not recognized.

Features of Colonial Administration in the Crown Colonies in British West Africa

The administration of the crown colonies was conducted by a number of institutions such as:

1. The secretary of state for the colonies: The secretary of state for the colonies was also called the colonial secretary. He was a cabinet minister, he stood between the colonial government and British government, he formulated colonial policies, appointed colonial governors and could transfer the governors as he deemed fit. He received complaints from concerned nationalists of the various colonies which complaint were handled with a view to safeguarding the interests and objectives of the British crown over the colonies.

2. The Governor: The administration of the British crown colonies was direct and headed by a governor who as the chief executive implemented British colonial policies. He was appointed from London through the secretary of states for the colonies who resided in London. He also reported to the colonial secretary who presented such report to the British parliament. His other functions include appointment of departmental heads, district and residence officers and judges and exercised the power to remove and discipline any of them.

3. Legislative council: The legislative council made laws for the colonies it had official members who were appointed by the governor, majority of whom were British citizens. The unofficial members were some African chiefs European merchants who were nominated into the council.

4. The executive council: The executive council carry out the functions of the executive arm of government. The executive council for each colony consisted of officials who were mainly whites. The council consisted of departmental heads the secretary of the colonial government, and director of medical services. The council was responsible to the governor and advised him on government policies.

 

Protectorates

A protectorate was a territory under the control and protection of the British government. Citizens of protectorates were classified as protected citizens, and were subject to the rule of their traditional rulers, who were answerable to the British authorities through the governor of the colony who administered the protectorate by making laws for them.

Trust Territories

The trust territory is a non-self-governing territory placed under the authority of the United Nations. Such a territory may be a formal mandate under the League of Nations, a territory taken from another country, or a territory taken from another country after the Second World War. Such territories (trust territory) were usually placed under the supervision of the Trusteeship countries in the United Nations.

Native Administration

The colonial administration instituted a system of native administration in the protectorates, provinces and districts through the indirect rule system. This is a system of administration which uses the traditional political institutions of the people to govern the people in accordance with their traditional norms and practices which did not conflict with colonial laws and under the guidance of colonial officials.

The British System of Colonial Administration

Britain like other European nations sent its officials to its four West African colonies after the 1890 Brussel conference for effective occupation of the territories. By 1900 Britain has established political influence in her four colonies of Nigeria, the Gold Coast (now Ghana) Sierra Leone and the Gambia. In West Africa, British crowned colonies include Lagos, Accra, Freetown and Bathurst colonies. These colonies were regarded as extensions of Great Britain so they were administered directly by the white British officials. The laws made in Britain were applied to these colonies. The governor general of the British territories were the chief Administrators of the colonies. At the crown colonies traditional rulers were not recognized. The direct administration was possible because of the presence of the large British officials in the colonies. Also, the colonies generated adequate funds for their administration. Besides the crown colonies other interior areas were regarded as protectorates and the indirect administrative system was used in all the places.

Meaning of Indirect Rule

Indirect rule was introduced in Nigeria by Sir Lord Frederick Lugard. It is a process by which the British ruled through chiefs and their councils which were intermediaries. It can as well be seen as the system whereby the traditional rulers in British colonies were used to rule their own people under the supervision of the British officials, In other words, the local traditional political institutions were employed by the colonial masters to rule the natives.

The practice was very successful in northern Nigeria but in the south, it was not so successful. Under the system, the traditional rulers, Chiefs, Obas, Emirs and the traditional council of elders were constituted into native authorities and used for the day to day administration of their areas. Some of the powers of the traditional rulers were removed from them. For instance they were no longer allowed to raise armies or to control their armed forces. They were not allowed to impose taxes on their people. The traditional rulers carried out their duties under strict supervision of the district or resident officers.

The Reasons for the Adoption of Indirect Rule

The principle of indirect rule was adopted for the following reasons:

1. The experience of Lord Lugard Indirect rule was first introduced in India and later in East and Central Africa in these places, the system was successful. The success prompted Lord Lugard to introduce the system in Nigeria

2. Personnel reason Indirect rule was introduced because there were not enough Englishmen ready to work in Africa. For example, by 1914 there were only 9 British officers to administer the whole of Northern Nigeria.

3. Language barrier: The problem of communication was another reason for the introduction of indirect rule. The people of Nigeria could not speak or understand English language and the British officials could not speak local languages. Therefore, indirect rule was used.

4. The absence of good roads: Most of the British colonies were large. To further compound this problem, most of the villages were linked by footpaths and people had to trek long distances before getting to their destinations. This made indirect rule the only option opened to the British government

5. British policy of preservation: Another reason that accounted for the adoption of this system was the British state intention to preserve all that were good in Africa

6. Problem of finance: The British government used the indirect rule system because it was cheaper for them to use African traditional chiefs.

7. The existence of good administrative systems: Before the advent of colonialism, they were already good administrative systems in Nigeria. For instance, the Fulani/Hausa Empire, the Yoruba and Benin kingdoms had good systems of keeping law and order. Therefore, the colonial masters decided to use the systems that were already in place.

8. The experience of the American War of Independence in 1776: One of the reasons for the adoption of indirect rule was the experience of the America War of Independence. The United States of America was a former British colony. The British invested a lot of money in that country, but unfortunately for them, the original inhabitants of the land took up arms and waged a revolt against them. Other powerful nations supported America and they won the war. Since then, the British decided never to invest in their colonies.

Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria

One of the reasons for the indirect rule policy was for the purpose of local government along traditional lines. The system rested upon native courts and native authority ordinances. The protectorate of northern Nigeria was divided into six provinces and each under a British official known as residents. Each province was further divided into districts and placed under district commissioners.

The system of indirect rule was successful in the northern Nigeria, and the following factors can account for this success:

1. The Sokoto caliphate already possessed a highly developed and efficient system of administration needed by the colonial masters

2. The centralized government had within it a system of taxation and treasury officials. There were also Muslim cults and an outstanding army for both internal and external aggression.

3. There was also in existence a tradition of submission by the northerners to authority, as the Emirs were regarded as God’s representative on earth

4. As a result of the nature of the northern traditional system, British officials were able to control the emirs and the emirs controlled the people. It was the successful application of the system in the north that prompted Lord Lugard to adopt the system in southern Nigeria.

5. The system of taxation in existence was flawless.

6. The level of education of the people in the North was very low, that nobody could question the

system.

 

Indirect Rule in Western Nigeria

The indirect rule recorded a partial success in western Nigeria contrary to Lugard’s expectation. The Yoruba Oba did not possess absolute power. For instance, the Oba in Yoruba traditional society was responsible to his council of chiefs. They could dethrone him and force him to commit suicide, if he decides to rule autocratically. Secondly, contrary to Lugard’s expectations, power in Yoruba society was shared among a number of chiefs representing their linages over which the oba had limited power. Thirdly, by reason of the oba’s position as the spiritual head he could not appear in public except on special occasion. This made it difficult for the oba to function as the head of the native administration that was created by the colonial masters. On the whole, the checks and balances that existed in the Yoruba traditional system prevented the Oba from becoming autocratic. When the colonial masters attempted to increase the powers of the Oba, the people rose in opposition and this lead to the Sayen riot of 1916 and the ljeora massacre of 1918.

Why Indirect Rule Failed Partially in the West

1. The traditional political system in existence did not give the monarch or Oba absolute powers, even. Though the system was centralized.

2. The Yoruba had a sizeable number of educated elite

3. The tax collection system in the West was weak.

4. The principle of checks and balances was in practice.

5. The educated elite were excluded from the indirect rule system hence they opposed it.

Indirect Rule in Eastern Nigeria

The system of indirect rule failed in eastern Nigeria because the Igbo lacked the traditional system of administration that was necessary for its success. For instance, the Igbo chiefs did not have much power like the northern Emirs. Thus, the people were not used to being controlled by the traditional rulers of any central authority. The people respected age, and leadership came from the entire council of elders. In order to make the system of indirect rule work, the colonial masters introduced the position of warrant chiefs. This was however new to the people. The people saw the warrant chiefs as tyrants. This, coupled with the introduction of taxation led to the Aba women riot of 1929 and the Calabar and Opobo not the same Year.

Why Indirect Rule Failed Significantly in the East

1. There were no traditional rulers in Igbo political system who could be seen as a central leader

2. The imposition of warrant chiefs was a major flaw

3. The system was fragmented and democratic and did not allow for oppression.

4. The level of literacy was already high in the Eastern region when the system was introduced

5. The system of taxation in existence in Igbo land was not authoritarian.

6. The traditional system was highly decentralized

Merits of the Indirect Rule System

1. The system was economical. It helped to solve the problem of limited financial resources and personnel.

2. The system preserved the good aspects of the indigenous political institutions. For instance, the people were allowed to administer their territories. In places like northern Nigeria it appeared as if the people were ruling themselves.

3. The system encouraged local community development. The colonial masters used part of the tax collected for the construction of roads, schools and hospitals.

4. The system also solved the problem of communication. If the colonial masters had ruled directly they would have had the problem of passing information across to the people

5. The system helped to change some traditional beliefs and practices like human sacrifices and killing of twins.

Demerits of the Indirect Rule System

1. The system reduced the traditional chief to mere puppets and agents of the colonial masters, For instance, the recognition, rejection and deposition of the traditional rulers were done, by British administrators.

2. The system of indirect cost of confident in traditional rulers.

3. In some places, the creation of the position of warrant chiefs led to widespread rioting.

5. Power was centralized in the hands of a few individuals at the expense of the masses. Therefore the masses could not participate in government

The Impact of Indirect Rule

1. Changes in traditional political institutions Indigenous institutions of government were modified by the colonialists. For example the introduction of the position of warrant chiefs in Igboland

2. Reduction of the power of traditional rulers: Traditional rulers were stripped of their powers and turned to mere puppets and agents of colonial masters.

3. With indirect rule, traditional chiefs and institutions were recognized and accepted as part of the colonial administrative institutions.

4. With indirect rule, the good aspects of African traditional political systems were preserved

5. Infrastructural facilities such as roads, railways and electricity were developed for effective administration.

 

The Positive Impacts of Colonial Administration in Nigeria

The positive impacts of colonial administration in Nigeria include the following:

1. Introduction of Modern Ideas of Government: The political culture of liberal democracy is introduced, the people now have certain opportunity of writing down their constitution. The introduction of elections through the ballot and the changes from monarchy to republicanism is a result of colonialism.

2. Development of civil service: The civil services of the colonies were developed and made uniform with those of the colonial masters.

3. Development of political parties: Many parties were established as a result of the introduction of elective principles. These political parties also championed the struggle for independence.

4. Introduction of money currency and establishment of banks: This replaced trade by barter and the cumbersome currency of iron bars and cowries in 1912, the first silver coins were introduced by the British and the West African currency Board set up to supply currency to British West African colonies. The colonies Bank was also established in 1917.

Note: this was the genesis of currencies which can be argued as a way of shortchanging the Africans. Trade by barter was a trade that exchanged worth for worth. But the exchange of cash for goods helps in the acquisition of valuable products with currencies which diminish over time. Gold was now traded with pounds and dollars which have never remained the same in value. While gold has always increased in value. It may he seen as a subtle means of rubbing Africa and the world.

5. Establishment of trade relations: West African countries established trade relations with their formal colonial masters. British and France are the major trading partner with their respective former colonies in West Africa.

Note: this could be seen as a negative effects of indirect rule.

Africa became a market for the finished goods of developed countries, while Europe was a market for Africa raw and unfinished materials. This With currency, quality and important raw materials were gotten from Africa, they were processed in Europe and sold back to the Africans. The African seen was flooded with these goods, to the extent local production was haulted at a point. What Africa produced was not being consumed directly by the people. Instead their own products were bought by them in their finished states (as European commodities). Because many of these raw materials are gotten with currencies (milled papers), the cost of the productions were quite cheap and could be sold very cheaply to the Africans. While goods that attempted processing within Nigeria could not see the light of day, because many needed machines which cost a lot of currencies that are not readily available. Even when purchased, profit is unattainable because competing European commodities will be sold at lower prices. Thus forceing the common man to neglect his own commodities.

6. Common languages and legal system: Colonialism promoted the development of common languages among colonial territories. English language for Anglophone countries and French for Francophone countries. The British language and legal system were also introduced. These legal systems were improvements on the African traditional legal system.

Note: these could be seen as the genesis of the cultural, tribal and ethnic divisions we have in the country. The forcefully implementation of the English language was just a tool for colonisation and contionous colonisation even after independence (neo colonisation). The language issues was a tool to forcefully join culturally different persons together. Which is today proving very counter productive.

7. Exposure to Western Education: The colonialists built schools and colleges in their colonies which enabled most Africans to acquire western education. The knowledge of English and French languages helped West Africans to communicate with the world outside.

Note: this was just a channel to make capitalists and slaves out of Nigerians. It was a tool to idolize the wicked actions of Britain’s and to perpetually keep the blacks from the Truth (their History). The history curriculum was never tailored along the Nigerian history until 1992. The history available was the one about Germany and Europe. The western school system was established to increase the frontier of British ideologies and thoughts, while disregarding the Eastern or oriental type of education.

9. Development of modern transportation seaports, airways, roads, bridges and communication facilities constructed by colonial masters.

Note: Although positive, it’s majorbaims was never borne out of assistance of the Africans. Rather, many were built for the exportation and exploitation of the Africans. These transport channels were built majorly for British exploitative purposes. That why many became abandoned and unuseful after the departure of British officials.

The Negative Impacts of Colonial Administration in Nigeria

The negative impacts of colonial administration in Nigeria include the following:

1. Economic development and exploitation: colonial government exploited their colonies by taking over their economic wealth through their economic policies with their former colonies. They dictated what were produced and exported and imported.

2. Colonialism creates problem of unity: colonial rule has divided the countries of West Africa into two major groups-English speaking and French speaking countries. This is one of the problems facing ECOWAS

3. Cultural imperialism: Colonialism imposed foreign cultures on the people of West Africa and forced them to imbibe alien cultures, Names were changed, languages abandoped, traditional cultural ways relegated and all things foreign deemed better than local ones.

4. Introduction of slave trade, deportation and humiliation of Africa leaders.

5. Alienation of the people from government

6. The type of education introduced by the colonial imperialists qualified them to become low rank officers in the civil service This slowed down the economic, social, educational and political development of West Africa

The French Colonial Administration

The French colonial administration was a sharp contrast to that of the British. While the British authorities used indirect rule system while the French authorities used direct rule system known as the policy of assimilation and later changed to association. They were in control of the following territories in West Africa Senegal, Ivory Coast (Cote d’ivore), Dahomey (now Benin Republic), Niger, Guinea and Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso). France established a loose federation of her colonies with headquarters in Dakar, Senegal and appointed a governor general resident in Dakar to supervise the activities of the federation.

Principles and Structure of the French Colonial Administration

1. The governor general: The governor general governed Senegal from Dakar and exercised authority over the other four colonies each of which had a governor. The governor general in principle had to consult the colonial minister in France for decisions on major issues that affect the federation.

2 Existence of provinces The French colonial government divided each colony into provinces called circles which varies greatly in size and in population. This circles were also subdivided into districts or cantoris

3 Division of Senegal into communes Senegal was divided into four communes of Saint Louis, Dakar, Rufisque, and Gorge. The inhabitants in these communes were accorded French citizenship. They were governed according to the laws made in Paris in France. However in the other colonial units there were a number of conditions for French citizenship

4 The French subjects outside the four communes had no political rights or representation in the French parliament in Paris

5. The system of administration which the French adopted under this arrangement was called the policy of assimilation.

The Policy of Assimilation

The French government first adopted the policy of assimilation in the administration of their territories in West Africa. Assimilation means attempting to make black Africans become French ion language and culture that is it was the colonial policy of the French government to make Africans adopt and use French education, language, religion, law mode of dressing etc. The policy was made to substitute the African way of life formally and informally. It was imposed on the Africans as a result of the French government’s belief that African culture was inferior and theirs being superior should be embraced by the people in their colonies.

The policy of assimilation regarded the French colonial territories as part of the extended French empire overseas and these territories were placed under the control of the French government in Paris.

Features of the French Policy of Assimilation in West Africa

1. Direct rule. The policy of assimilation was a direct system of administration supervised and coordinated by the resident governor general in Dakar France provided revenue for the provision of infrastructure and social amenities in her African territories,

2 Unification of French colonies. The policy brought all French colonies together under an umbrella called French federation with headquarters in Dakar, Senegal under a governor general from Paris

3. Superiority of French culture: The policy of assimilation was based on the belief that French culture was superior to other cultures, and the African culture must be substituted with French culture.

4. French citizenship status on Africans: The policy accorded African people French citizenship status, and this provided Africans equal legal opportunities and privileges with their French counterparts.

5. Absorption into the French political system: Since many Africans enjoyed full citizenship rights they were absorbed into the French political system. For instance, Blaise Diagne became the first African to be elected into the French National Assembly in 1914.

6. Limitation of traditional rulers power: The powers of the traditional rulers were reduced and the French officials approved policies and appointment for them.

Factors Responsible for the Failure of the Policy of Assimilation

The policy of assimilation failed and was abandoned by France as a result of the following:

1. The policy of assimilation introduced direct administration which required heavy financial commitment from the central government in France. Many French citizens criticized the policy of spending tax payers money in foreign colonies at the expense of the French people.

2. The policy failed because it was rigid and discriminatory in its application to the people in the interior and those in the communes of Senegal. While the people in the interior were required to renounce their culture before they could be granted French citizenship, the people in the communes were granted automatic French citizenship status from birth

3. The preference of the African people for their culture and way of life made it impossible for them to drop their culture for that of the French, and likewise did they reject the whole policy of assimilation

4. With the reduction in their powers and scope of activities, the traditional leaders secretly undermined the effectiveness of the policy in their areas.

 

5. French and African scholars criticized the adoption of assimilation as a policy that never meant good for the people of the West African sub-region. They rejected the policy on grounds of racism, where the French government regarded African culture as primitive and French culture as civilized and superior

6. The type of education introduced contributed to the failure of the hat afforded of assimilation. The missionaries introduced the educational system to Christianity rather than providing them the opportunity of winning converts qualitative education for the socio-economic development of the people. The Muslims rejected this type of education for fear of being converted to Christianity.

7. The implementation of the indigenization policy, which included imprisonment without trial and forced labour, accounted for the failure of the

8. The Second World War was also responsible for the failure. Colonialists were advised to relinquish their colonies, more so as the Africans who participated in the war no longer felt that the white men were superior as they previously assumed. Furthermore, the United Nations advocated the self-determination of people under colonial rule.

9. President Charles De Gaule was determined to replace assimilation with association, as a result of the opposition of the African people..

The Reforms of 1956 Known as the Loi-Cadre in the French Colonies

The 1956 elections made the leader of the Rassemblement Democratique African (RDA) which emerged, to champion ant colonial causes. The leader Houphouet Boigny became a minister. He was allowed to work on African demands and problems. He sent a proposal to the French Parliament This became the 1956 administrative reforms known as Loi Cadre (the outline law). This policy recognized the separate identity and existence of each territory in West Africa. It provided for separate Executive Council and Legislative House for each colony under French control it is important to note that between 1956 and 1960 the West African colonies were given more independence in the discussion of African affairs than before.

The Features of Loi Cadre

1. Power was given to the territorial assemblies and the power of the territorial ground council was reduced. Each colony had a representative assembly with much more powers with an All-African membership.

2. The Governor was the president of the council while an as African was the Vice-President, the Governor was a Whiteman.

3. Political party or participation increased in all the colonies.

4. The assembly had the power to legislate on internal matters e.g. Health, Civic Service, etc.

5. The Loi-Cadre made provision for only one electoral-college for future elections in Africa.

 

The Policy of Association

Following the weakness and failure of the policy of assimilation, France conceived the idea of the policy of association to replace assimilation Association was the policy by which Africans associated with France in the political and economic realms, not as Frenchified Africans, but as a people with their own distinct culture and traditions. It was the French form of indirect rule. The policy of association preserved the culture, religion, customs and political units of the various colonies. It accorded traditional rulers necessary regard in the affairs of the colonial government.

Reasons for the Introduction of the Policy of Association in French West Africa

1. The level of nationalist activities in West Africa increased after the Second World War and this forced France to abandon the policy of assimilation.

2. The rise of President De Gaule to power and the determination of his administration to replace assimilation with association.

3. The policy of assimilation was costly to administer because it was a direct administration which required large sum of money.

4. Those that benefited from the system (elites) later on turned round to criticize it.

Features/Characteristics of the Policy of Association

1. Association granted some autonomy to the people, recognized the authority of traditional rulers as well as used some other natives in the administration of the local areas.

2. It decentralized the political structure, and allowed each local territory to develop at its own pace.

3. The Africans, no longer regarded as French citizens, but as inferior people, were subjected to dehumanizing experiences such as forced labour.

4. The policy prepared the people for the forming of political parties in the French West African colonies

5. It created local national assemblies for the people of the various colonies to discuss their affairs.

6. It abolished compulsory military service and the indigenous policy

7. The policy recognized the cultural diversity of the people.

Comparison of the British and French Colonial Administrations

1. Britain did not make any attempt to bring her colonies together in a federation, but France imposed a highly centralized federal system of government for all her territories in West Africa, with headquarters in Dakar.

2. Britain allowed the colonized peoples to retain their culture, while France, especially through assimilation, sought to impose French culture and civilization on the people.

3. The educated elite were not significant in the indirect rule system Britain was discriminatory towards them in her colonies, while France gave the greatest recognition to the educated Africans. They were accorded the title and rights of French citizens

4. France provided social amenities and her development structures to her Colonies than Britain did. This was because France regarded these colonies as part of France while Britain saw her colonies merely as colonies that would soon be on their own.

5. The French constitution was also applicable to the colonies, even though some sections were modified and amended to make them operational in the colonies, British colonies had their own body of laws or constitutions.

6. Both the British and French colonialists had the overall headquarters in their home country where the general policies and programmes of colonial administration were formulated for their territories.

7. The British system encouraged the formation of political parties in her West African territories, while citizens of French territories had representatives in the French parliament and other educated elite could join political parties in France. This discouraged the formation of independent political parties in French West Africa

8. Britain used the indirect rule system which utilized African traditional rulers, and retained the people’s customs and laws in the running of local affairs, while France largely used direct rule through the policies of assimilation and association

9. Britain granted some autonomy to the traditional rulers in the administration of their local areas and incorporated them into the indirect rule system. France rendered the institution of traditional rulers completely redundant in some places and used them in some other areas only to collect taxes and recruit Soldiers and labourers.

Merits of British and French Colonial Administrations in West Africa

1. Agriculture was greatly developed during colonial rule, especially in the production of cash crops like cocoa, cotton, oil palm and rubber to provide raw materials for British and French industries. Mechanized agriculture was introduced in government farms, and local farmers were encouraged to produce more.

2. The British and French colonial administrators established modern transportation and communication systems in different parts of West Africa. For instance, they provided roads, waterways, railways, bridges, and postal and telecommunication facilities.

3. Colonial rule brought western education to the people of West Africa. The British and French administrators built schools and colleges which brought up a crop of educated West Africans who could communicate easily and hold their own among people from other parts of the world

4. The Christian missionaries accompanied colonial governments and spread Christianity to the African people. Christianity contributed a lot towards the elimination of human sacrifice and similar vices in the colonies administered by Britain and France. The missionaries also provided educational and health facilities

5. Colonialism resulted in the establishment of larger political units encompassing the old traditional kingdoms. For example, in Nigeria, the Yoruba kingdoms, the Hausa-Fulani empire, the Igbo communities and the Jukun kingdom, among others were brought together as a country

8. Britain granted some autonomy to the traditional rulers in the administration of their local areas and incorporated them into the indirect rule system. France rendered the institution of traditional rulers completely redundant in some places and used them in some other areas only to collect taxes and recruit Soldiers and labourers.

Merits of British and French Colonial Administrations in West Africa

1. Agriculture was greatly developed during colonial rule, especially in the production of cash crops like cocoa, cotton, oil palm and rubber to provide raw materials for British and French industries. Mechanized agriculture was introduced in government farms, and local farmers were encouraged to produce more.

2. The British and French colonial administrators established modern transportation and communication systems in different parts of West Africa. For instance, they provided roads, waterways, railways, bridges, and postal and telecommunication facilities.

3. Colonial rule brought western education to the people of West Africa. The British and French administrators built schools and colleges which brought up a crop of educated West Africans who could communicate easily and hold their own among people from other parts of the world

4. The Christian missionaries accompanied colonial governments and spread Christianity to the African people. Christianity contributed a lot towards the elimination of human sacrifice and similar vices in the colonies administered by Britain and France. The missionaries also provided educational and health facilities

5. Colonialism resulted in the establishment of larger political units encompassing the old traditional kingdoms. For example, in Nigeria, the Yoruba kingdoms, the Hausa-Fulani empire, the Igbo communities and the Jukun kingdom, among others were brought together as a country

6. Big cities like Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna, Dakar, Accra and Abidjan developed during British and French colonial administration.

7. Colonialism facilitated inter-state trade among the countries under the same colonial master.

8. The activities of the western missionaries facilitated the level of social development in both colonies. For instance, they established health and educational facilities.

9. The introduction of the British and French legal systems provided improvements to, and modifications of, the African traditional laws.

Demerits of British and French Colonial Administrations in West Africa

1. Britain and France presented their cultures as superior to those of the African peoples and so made the people of West Africa accept alien cultures to the neglect of their own.

3. Colonial education retarded socio-economic and political development of these countries. The form of education introduced was meant to teach Africans how to read and write English and French languages, and not really to train them for the socio-economic development of their countries

4. Britain and France exploited the economy of West African countries. They derived raw materials from These countries to feed their industries and brought back finished products to them at high prices.

4. Both Britain and France introduced the capitalist ideology into their colonies. The system vests economic wealth and control in the hands of a few individuals

5. The policy of assimilation made French speaking countries completely dependent on France. This dependence provided France an opportunity to interfere in their domestic economic military and political policies, even after independence

6. Colonial administration created long-standing division and mutual distrust between the Traditional Rulers (and their illiterate subjects) and the educated Africans who were opposed to European educated Africans who were involvement in the domestic policies of West African territories. posed to European

7. Colonial rule resulted in the balkanization and separation of peoples. Some peoples with dissimilar religions, languages and customs were brought together in one country while ethnic groups were separated into two or more countries. These created problems of national unity, mutual understanding and cooperation. The two systems exploited West Africans in the two world wars. The colonized people were recruited as soldiers to fight (and die) in wars which didn’t concern them. Africans who were involvement in the domestic policies of West African territories. Posed to European

7. Colonial rule resulted in the balkanization and separation of peoples. Some peoples with dissimilar religions, languages and customs were brought together in one country while ethnic groups were separated into two or more countries. These created problems of national unity, mutual understanding and cooperation. The two systems exploited West Africans in the two world wars. The colonized people were recruited as soldiers to fight (and die) in wars which didn’t concern them.

Meaning of Nationalism

Nationalism can be defined as a strong feeling of national consciousness and love for one’s country to take care of its own affairs and be free from foreign control and domination. During colonial period, it was seen as opposition to European domination Nationalism is struggle against oppression and domination, struggle for equality and political participation and self-government. It can be described as a movement for national independence During colonial rule in Africa nationalism was centred on the desire of African people to be free from colonialism and to attain self-government.

Effects of Nationalism in Nigeria

1. It led to an increased participation of Nigerians in politics and this in turn led to the inclusion of Nigerians in the legislative and executive councils

2. It made Nigerians to be aware of the disadvantages of colonial rule and their political rights.

3. Nationalist movement led to the development of political parties in Nigeria e.g. the first political party in Nigeria - Nigeria National Democratic Party (NNDP) was formed by one of the nationalist- Herbert Macaulay

4 The nationalist eventually achieved independence for Nigeria in 1960.

5. Nationalism checked the excesses of the colonial government

6. Higher institutions of learning were established eg, Yaba College

7. Their struggle led to the inclusion of Nigerians in the civil service.

8. It brought about several constitutional reforms in Nigeria.

9. It led to the emergence of newspapers eg Lagos Daily News.

10. Their agitations led to the introduction and extension of Franchise in Nigeria (elective principle).

Factors that Led to the Rise and Growth of Nationalism in Nigeria

1. Independence of other countries e.g. India in 1947 and later Ghana in 1957.

2. The colonial policy of indirect rule excluded the educated elite from governance.

3. The activities of West African Students Union (WASU) in Britain and U.S.A.

4. The establishment of United Nations Organization stimulated nationalist movements due to its stance on colonialism and Human Rights.

5. The 1941 Atlantic charter emphasized the right to self-determination by all people of the world.

6. Appointment and deposition of chiefs by the colonial masters also increased nationalism e.g. the Aba women riot of 1929.

7. The emergence of newspapers such as the West African Pilot, Lagos Daily News, etc. increased nationalism.

8. The British Labour Party supported self-rule for the colonized territories.

9. The defeat of Britain by Japan.

10. The activities of the Pan-African Congress.

11. Activities of trade union eg. Nigeria Civil Service Union 1921, NUT 1931, etc.

Some Key Nationalist Leaders and their Contributions to Nationalism

1. Herbert Macaulay He formed the first political party in Nigeria (NNDP). He also established a newspaper launched in 1925. The Lagos Daily News. This helped in creating awareness and aroused the political interest of Nigerians. Herbert Macaulay is regarded as the father of Nigerian Nationalism.

2 Nnamdi Azikiwe. He was a strong Nigerian nationalist He was a member of Nigerian Youth Movement general secretary of National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroon (NCNC) He was the velitor of West African Pilot. He represented the eastern region in the constitutional conferences. In all these activities he contributed seriously to the rise and growth of Nationalism in Nigeria.

3. Chief Obafemi Awolowo: He was the founding father of Action Group, (a political party) a party whose member spear headed the 1953 motion for Nigeria self government in 1956. Awolowo represented the western region in the constitutional conferences.

4. Sir Ahmadu Bello: He was the leader of the Northern People’s Congress (NPC). He also was the premier of the Northern region. He also represented the Northern region in the constitutional conferences.

5. Ernest Ikoli: He was one of the founders of the Nigerian Youth Movement. All the political parties contributed toward the growth of nationalism.

6. L. Akintola, Samuel Akinsonya, H.O. Davies, etc. all contributed through their membership of the political party or the other.

Methods Used by Nationalists in their Opposition to British Rule in Nigeria/West Africa

1. The use of press - e.g. West African Pilot, Comet, Daily Express, Lagos Daily News etc. were used as vocal points of opposition to the British rule.

2. Strike, protests, etc. e.g. 1945 nationwide strike in Nigeria and 1948 in Ghana (then Gold Coast).

3. Constitutional Conferences.

4. Organizing seminars, symposia.

5. The use of political parties e.g. NNDP in Nigeria, CPP in Ghana, PPP in Gambia, SLPP in Sierra-Leone.