AFRICAN EPISTEMOLOGY; ITS NATURE, SCOPE AND CONTENT
BY
13/2784
13/035134011(UNICAL)
DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY
ST. JOSEPH MAJOR SEMINARY IKOT EKPENE, AKWA IBOM STATE
(AN AFFILIATE OF THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF CALABAR AND PONTIFICAL URBAN UNIVERSITY, ROME)
SUBMITTED TO
REV. FR. DR. STEPHEN APEBENDE
LECTURER: EPISTEMOLOGY
PHL 415
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE COURSE REQUIREMENT FOR FIRST SEMESTER 2016 / 2017 ACADEMIC/ FORMATIVE SESSION.
JANUARY, 2017.
OUTLINE
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Elucidation of terms
2.1 Africa
2.2 African
2.3 Epistemology
3.0 African Philosophy
4.0 African Epistemology
4.1 The nature of African Epistemology
4.2 The scope of African Epistemology
4.2.1 Forms of African Epistemology
4.3 The Content of African Epistemology
5.0 Evaluation
6.0 Conclusion
Works Cited
1.0. Introduction
Philosophy as a discipline has gone across being only western. That is to say that it is not only limited to the western world and at the same time it has involves many other disciplines that are vital and deal with human nature.
Almost all the continents and countries of the world have there owned various views concerning philosophy. Africa as a continent has a peculiar way of doing philosophy which is different from the way other peoples of other countries and nations do philosophy. Just as philosophy is no longer limited to the western world, so are its branches.
In this work, we are going to look at Epistemology which is a branch of philosophy, from the African perspective. The question now is: is there anything like African Epistemology? If yes, what are its nature, scope and content?
Our aim is to limelight what African epistemology is, taking into consideration its nature, scope and content.
Elucidation of basic terms
AfricaWebster Illustrated Contemporary Dictionary defined Africa as the second-largest continent, located in the East hemisphere South of Europe and joined to Asia by Sinai peninsula, 11,500,000 sq. mi. It is bound with the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Indian Ocean to the East.
African
The adjective “African” qualifies the noun “Africa.” “African” means “of Africa.” African in African Epistemology simply means connotatively, that which is of, relating to Africa. By extension or denotatively, it has to do with the characteristics of people of Africa, their mode of thought, culture or languages. “African” has to do with that relating to any part of the African continent.
Epistemology
Etymologically speaking, the term epistemology is derived from two Greek words “episteme” meaning “knowledge” and “logos” meaning “study”, or “the theory of”. This gave rise to epistemology as the “study or theory of knowledge”. Epistemology is a branch of philosophy which deals with knowledge. And “knowledge is the act of being aware of the existence of a fact” (Ozumba, 15). Encarta dictionary defines it as the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, in particular its foundations, scope, and validity.Epistemology is according to Encyclopaedia Britannica is “the study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge.” and accordingly the field is sometimes referred to as the theory of knowledge. Epistemology has a long history, beginning with the ancient Greeks and continuing to the present. Along with metaphysics, logic, and ethics, it is one of the four main branches of philosophy, and nearly every great philosopher has contributed to it.
Epistemology is the study of theories about the nature and scope of knowledge, the evaluation of the presuppositions and bases of knowledge, and scrutiny of knowledge claims. In short, epistemology is a branch of philosophy whose main focus is to analyse and evaluate claims of knowledge. And to what extent all humans have the capacity to know. Epistemology is universal regardless of culture, tribe or race.
Since epistemology is a branch of philosophy and our main focus is on Africa, I think it is right to understand first what African philosophy is all about.
African Philosophy
According to Iroegbu, philosophy is classically defined as Scientia Rerum per ultima causa (knowledge of things via their ultimate cause), and etymologically as the love of wisdom: Philo-Sophia (27). Olatunji referencing Paulin J. Hountondji said that philosophy can be regarded as the most self-conscious of disciplines. It is the one discipline that involves by its very nature a constant process of reflection upon itself. For Iroegbu, philosophy is the reflective and systematic investigation into the fundamental questions that confront the human being and these questions touch on reality as a whole: empirical and meta-empirical. Those included questions concerning the universe, humanity, the neighbour, the self, life and supernatural beings: God, the spirits and the afterlife (116). Still, on this, Augustine Shutte in his book Philosophy for Africa stated that philosophy is the search for truths and values that are true and valuable for every place and time. But like every human activity, it must take place in a particular place and time, growing out of a particular tradition of thought and writing that is different from other traditions, and dealing with issues and problems that are experienced in a particular social and cultural situation that is different from every other.It is on this note that Iroegbu defined African philosophy as “the reflective inquiry into the marvels and problematics that confront one in the African world, in view of producing systematic explanation and sustained responses to them (116).” Furthermore, according to Hountondji, African philosophy bears a direct relation to history and culture and that the reflection of African intelligentsia upon our total historical being represents a significant moment in the intellectual response of Africans to the challenge of western civilization.
African philosophy refers to a philosophy that critically presents African worldviews. It could be done by either an African or a non-African so long their philosophy is in tandem with African. G.O Ozumba quoting C.B. Okolo writes the today African philosophy, is gradually establishing a tradition in current African scholarship such that no scholar should be taken seriously who still denies the existence of such discipline (163)
African Epistemology
Just as we have western epistemology so also we in this present generation seeks to know if there is anything like the African epistemology. Is there a practice of African epistemology? The African as the being-in-the-world has the challenge of knowing reality as it affects him (Ozumba, 163). This quest for knowledge about reality is a universal human need which also includes the African continent. African epistemology, therefore, is the concretization of what is known in the African world. It is all about the way the African reflects on the reality within the African world. It also has to do with the ways and manners the African makes an effort to justify what he claims to know. According to F. Etim epistemology is concerned with the nature, sources, objectivity and extent of human knowledge. Aja in Etim (127) pointed out that Epistemology as it pertains to African thought then is concerned with ascertaining whether or not what is claimed as knowledge is actually knowledge rather than mistaken opinion on the one hand, and the means of or sources of acquiring the knowledge or the other.For Ozumba, African Epistemology is Africa’s own way of carrying out its inquiries into the nature, scope and limits of knowledge.
4.1. The Nature of African Epistemology
When we talk of the nature of African Epistemology, we mean that which makes this particular epistemology Africa. Why not just “epistemology” or world epistemology? Here all attention is focused on African. The question now is, what is the nature of African Epistemology? The nature of African Epistemology is that African Epistemology is deeply rooted in Africa. It draws its origin and source from the African nation. Philosophers or scholars involved may not be Africans, but their thoughts, ideas and works speak more of Africa.
African epistemology grounded in the rich African cultural heritage, from there we “sift the epistemological elements, then thresh them in the laboratory of professionalism and then confront western epistemological challenges with them” (Ozumba, 171).
4.2. The Scope of African Epistemology
The scope of African Epistemology is too compound. That is to say that it entails “all that is knowable” (Ozumba, 171). Since anything that is knowable exists, so virtually all that is experienced, reasoned out and practised in daily African life is epistemological. There is an element of knowledge acquired in all that we pass through in life. So the scope of African Epistemology entails that which is knowable and through whatever means that knowledge can be attained. It is limited to human ascertainable knowledge (171). This also involves the forms of knowledge in African Epistemology.
There are varied forms of knowledge in African Epistemology which according to Etim are called types or sources of knowledge (128). For J. O Ndubuisi the forms of knowledge include perceptual knowledge, common sense knowledge, old age knowledge, inferential knowledge, mystical knowledge, oral tradition, holistic knowledge.
Forms of Knowledge in African Epistemology
I. Perceptual KnowledgeThis is purely the form or type of knowledge gained through sense perception. The African places a huge premium on experience. It is called first-hand knowledge. The African person holds that knowledge is gained through what we see, hear, touch, taste or smell. And this is embedded on the idea to see is to believe (Ndubuisi, 34). Etim explaining further says that in this type of knowledge, to know means that you have witnessed something and can comfortably communicate or relate it to others (128). For example, the idea that ‘Cornelius is in the chapel’ is within the domain of perceptual knowledge. The African finds it very difficult to doubt what he has witnessed with the empirical senses. The question of whether one is deceived by his senses is out place here. In some cases where there are problems of ascertaining the veracity of claim to knowledge, the African would ask for the eye-witness (the third party). But should the testimony of the eye-witness be doubted, oath-taking becomes the final reference point (Ndubuisi, 34). The Africans believe any witness, especially if done over an oath, is true. The practice and ritual of swearing on the Bible or Koran in the law court before the presentation of a case or acting as a witness seem to vindicate this African belief (Etim, 129).
II. Common Sense Knowledge
This is the type of knowledge that is gained effortlessly. It is the type of knowledge that is coeval with the human person. For Etim, this type of knowledge is inborn and is synonymous with the innate knowledge of the rationalist (131). For the Africans it is believed that every human person has this type of knowledge: the knowledge to distinguish between what is morally good or morally bad. It must be noted that the fact that every person possesses this type of knowledge is in kind and not in degree. The Igbo people would always say that „Isi an isi ha bu n‟onu‟ (That all heads are equal is just a matter of words of the mouth). The implication here is that some people’s common sense of knowledge may be higher than others (Ndubuisi, 34). Despite the fact that this is a natural endowment, some persons seem not to employ it. In such a situation in the African context, such person(s) is/ are regarded as being without sense and this considered an insult on the person since everyone is believed to be well endowed naturally with this capacity.
III. Old Age Knowledge
This type of knowledge is associated with old age. For the Africans, it is believed that the older a person is the more knowledgeable the person becomes. It is the type of knowledge gained through a wealth of experience. It is also believed that the old person must have had a series of experience in life which will now be the basis for most of his decisions. Also, in the African hierarchy of beings, there is the belief that the old people are closer to the gods who are the sources of all wisdom. Therefore, they (older people) share intuitively in divine knowledge. So the ontological states of old people within the African world presuppose knowledgeability. Citing Onyewuenyi, Ndubuisi writes: A person is said to know or have wisdom in as much as he approaches divine wisdom. And a person approaches divine wisdom when he/she becomes less fleshy (Ndubuisi, 34). This simply means that the older a person gets, the more knowledgeable he is.
IV. Inferential Knowledge
The inference is the act of drawing a conclusion from a given fact of data. Ndubuisi holds that inferential knowledge is the type of knowledge gained from repeated events or phenomena. If a little child says the truth once, twice or thrice, the African elder concludes that the little child is truthful. This type of knowledge/conclusion is amplified by past experiences. However, there is a problem that goes with this form of knowledge which is not within the scope of this study. The important thing to note is that the African in his quest for knowledge tries to make reference to the past to enable him to ascertain the present. (34)
V. Mystical Knowledge
Mystical knowledge is the type of knowledge acquired through extra-ordinary means. It is beyond the ordinary sense perception. It is the type of knowledge gained through the help of the gods and other spiritual beings. This according to Etim is called divination. He went further to define it as an art or practice of discovering what will happen in the future using supernatural means (130). The African believes that those who are privileged to possess this type of knowledge are the diviners, priests, native-doctors, witches, rain-makers, etc. Uduigwomen, as cited by Ndubuisi (34), observed that these set of people are believed to possess certain “innate abilities” that enable them to manipulate the spirit world in favour of the natural world. This ability and privilege constitute them into a special class as a veritable intermediary between men and the spirit. Today, this type of knowledge is not only limited to the traditional setting as the Christian churches have effectively made recourse to it in their healing ministration (Etim, 130). Also, Ndubuisi quoting Ekarika stated that this type of knowledge has to do with obtaining information or truth about the past and future things. One thing to note about this type of knowledge is that it is African’s own way of gaining knowledge of realities that are ordinarily hidden. (34)
VI. Oral Tradition
This is the form of knowledge gained through words of mouth. It is the first and still most widespread mode of human communication. Far more than “just talking,” oral tradition refers to a dynamic and highly diverse oral-aural medium for evolving, storing, and transmitting knowledge, art, and ideas. It is typically contrasted with literacy, with which it can and does interact in myriad ways, and also with literature, which it dwarfs in size, diversity, and social function. It is the major means of knowledge acquisition and transmission in the African traditional society. Oral tradition has to do with the accumulation of events handed down from one generation to the other in the form of the proverb, myths, stories, folk-tales, customs, legends, etc. Some of the things we claim to know today are the things handed down to us through oral tradition. Most of the things we claim to know were not written down on any paper or slate. No documentation of those histories was made. They were only handed down from one generation to another through words by way of stories and instructions/directions. This form of knowledge acquisition is very important to the African person. More so, this form of knowledge disposes the African child to fall in tune with the demands of his immediate society. Uduigwomen cited Ajayi‟s position on oral tradition as a source of knowledge in African epistemology. He noted that oral tradition is sometimes enshrined in the works of arts, crafts, symbols, titles, names of places, shrines and sacred places (Uduigwomen, 39).
VII. Holistic Knowledge
It is the belief of the African person that knowledge of reality cannot be gained if the individual person detaches himself from it. This implies that knowledge of a given reality must involve the subject and the object, the knower and the known. This is what is known as holistic knowledge in African epistemology. Ndubuisi cited Anyanwu and Rush position on holistic knowledge where they said that: “The African maintained that there can be no knowledge of reality if an individual detaches himself from it.” It, therefore, follows that there is a connection or a relationship that exists between the African person and his world. The African does not claim to know anything in isolation.
VIII. Premonition Knowledge
According to Etim, this type of knowledge is associated with some signs like sneezing repeatedly, hitting one's toe (left or right). It is regarded as a form of extra-sensory knowledge, probably, and a form of communication from the gods or the ancestors of an immediate or an impending dangerous occurrence (129). Etim citing Uduigwomen gave some examples: “the unexpected shaking of one’s toe could be a sign that some evil is in the offing; a person sneezing repeatedly could mean that his name is being mentioned somewhere for good or for bad; to hit one’s foot against a stone accidentally could be a sign of an impending evil” (ibid).
To the epistemologist, this type of knowledge is questionable since there is no objective criterion for its verification. Again, since there is no standard of interpretation, it could be interpreted differently depending on the person involved. Worst of all is it's being associated with superstition (ibid).
4.3. The Content of African Epistemology
The contents of African Epistemology are those practices and sources of knowledge that are inherent in African cultures and tradition, from which Africans sift out there epistemology. The contents of African Epistemology are those primitive traditional African practices which were handed on from one generation to the other. This includes African myths, folkways, proverbs and language (Ozumba, 172). Others include stories, customs, legends, rituals and rites. According to C. B. Nze, Ozumba quotes, “endemic in every Igbo man’s actions are permeated by logic, reasoning and understanding. He further avers that human beings, simply because they are humans think, reason, differences between cultures notwithstanding” (168).
It is from words, wise sayings, proverbs and mythical sayings that we are able to understand the logic, the profundity of a people’s epistemic rigour. African proverbs and pithy sayings reveal the depth of African knowledge in virtually all areas of life – namely, psychology, religion, biology, philosophy, science and politics (169). It is when all these epistemic categories are harnessed, purified and translated into an organically and professionally communicable form that is ready and good for progressive conceptual creations and understanding. For it is when thoughts are idealized, you conceptualize and then, you incubate the idea, what follows is fabrication and creation (165).
5.0. Evaluation
It is now obvious that there is something known as African Epistemology. From our discourse so far, there is a lot of vital and knowledgeable deposit in African beginning from its cultures and traditions. It is through its inherent rich cultural heritage that is stated above that African Epistemological elements are sifted out. With what we have in Africa, our own Epistemology needs not to toe the same path with western epistemology. Because we do not share the same cultural heritage even though epistemology generally is all about human knowledge, ours is unique to us. In affirmation to this, Ozumba opined that “knowledge is viewed as a well-rehearsed and rationalized set of ideas, which are seen as having met the optimal standard of rationality, acceptance, with evidential corroboration within the traditional community. This makes African Epistemology or concept of knowledge universalistic, particularistic and relative at the same time. Universalistic because opinions are canvassed, subjected to rigorous analysis, after which it is either rejected or upheld. If the opinion stands positively against all attempts at falsification or meets the criterion of adequacy, such opinions are upheld. It is particularistic because every event elicits the same kind of adequacy test. The acceptance of an opinion does not confer on it the stamp of universal application in future similar cases. Each case is examined against the same opinion to ascertain its relevance or appositeness. Knowledge is relative because opinion is considered true relative to the circumstance of place, time and exigencies of strategy, auspiciousness and relevance. It is relative also because, at times, it is the representative views or opinions of the select cream of the community that is sampled and accepted.” (171)
6.0. Conclusion
African Epistemology is deep-rooted in African. It has Africa at its foundation and it covers and also involves everything that is knowable and the forms through which knowledge be attained in Africa. Our cultural heritage is very rich. Its contents are highly enormous as rightly mentioned above. But in my own opinion, I think that despite the fact that we Africans are unique in nature and our cultural heritage, amongst us, there is diversity. Culture in Africa is diverse. So also is most of our characteristics.
In African, we have different tongues and dialects, so it is with our colours. All these in one way or the other affect our daily routines and activities that form our cultures and traditions from where we draw out our epistemological views. There are some things or practices which may be common in Africa but have different interpretations and mode of operation. For instance, there is folklore and stories, and some premonitory actions like sneezing. Continuous sneezing by someone gives a different interpretation to different cultures in Africa.
What we rightly need to do is to harness the modes of thoughts and inquiry of the African diversified cultural heritage, articulate, examine, criticize and discuss the potentialities inherent in the epistemological heritage of the African people than confront western epistemological challenges with them.
Works Cited
Etim F., Metaphysics of African Medicine: A Reflection on Philosophy of Medicine. COMM-WATCH Production, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State. 2013.
Iroegbu P., Metaphysics: The Kim of Philosophy. Owerri: International University Press, 1995
_________ Enwisdomization & African Philosophy, Owerri: International University Press, 1994
Ndubuisi J. O., Nature and Function of Logic in African Epistemology. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science. vol. 19, Issue 11, Ver. V (Nov. 2014), pp 32-36 / www.iosrjournals.org
Ozumba G. O., A Concise Introduction to Epistemology. Jochrisam Publishers, Atamunu, Calabar. 2001.
Shutte A., Philosophy For Africa, UCT Press, University of Cape Town. 1993.
Uduigwomen, A. F.(ed)., Footmarks on African Philosophy. Oberoi and Ogbiraka Publishers Ltd, 2002.
Webster Illustrated Contemporary Dictionary, (New Standard Encyclopedia Edition). J.G. Ferguson Publishing Company. 1984.
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