EDUCATIONAL POLICY FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION IN NIGERIA By Drake Omonode

EDUCATIONAL POLICY FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION IN NIGERIA

By Drake Omonode

Introduction

In education as in other fields of human Endeavour, every official Action of an organization must have a backing or a basis. It is this Purpose that a policy serves. A policy defines the area in which Decisions are to be made, but it does not make the decision. It usually provides a general guide that facilitates decision-making. Educational Policies provide the direction for educational activities. The formulation of an educational policy sets the stage for Implementation which, according to Ukeje (1986), is perhaps the Most important aspect of planning. Planning is usually an action which succeeds policy formulation but precedes implementation. Unfortunately, educational policies and goal attainment have been Irreconcilable due to implementation constraints. Perhaps this Accounts for the observation made by Governor Oyakhilome of Rivers

State in an address sent to the Convention of the Nigerian Association For Educational Administration and Planning in 1986. He expressed Concern about the problem of policy implementation thus:

We know it is difficult to realize planned objectives one

Hundred percent. But our experience in planning education

In this country shows a disturbing gap between planned

Objectives and attained results ... As professionals in the field of

Education, it may be pertinent to identify whether those critical

Gaps are results of faulty planning or faulty implementation

(Oyakhilome 1986:2).

Policy implementation in education is a conspicuous national Problem that has taken centre stage in Nigeria. This paper examines The problem in some detail and explores its implications for the

Development of Nigeria.

The concept of educational policy

Educational policies are initiatives mostly by governments that Determine the direction of an educational system (Okoroma 2000:190). According to Osokoya (1987:2):

Education is a distinctive way in which the society inducts its

Young ones into full membership. So every modern society

Needs some educational policies to guide it in the process of

Such initiation.

In the view of Awokoya (1981), educational policy is directed towards Increasing the quality of life of a people. He believes that the objective Of any policy is to satisfy individual needs, community pressures And the degree of complexity and sophistication to which socialised

Personnel must be educated and trained to meet these demands. The Following considerations, according to Awokoya (1981), are necessary To guide the formulation of adequate educational policy.

• It should be formulated and adopted through a political process Which acknowledges the reality and legitimacy of conflicting Interests and desires among its participants

• It should portray some elements of guidance for properly directed And coordinated action towards the attainment of the desired goals

• It should contain information on the broad objectives that should Be reached

• It should be a binding guide on the actions of those implementing it

• It should be enforceable and enforced by the society which Formulates it.

Kerr (1976) believes that, for a policy to qualify as an educational Policy, it must be distinct from other policies. In his view, educational Policies are distinguishable from other policies by the fact that Policies on education are part and parcel of educational institutions. However, it is important to note that not all policies formulated in Educational institutions can qualify as educational po1icies. Generally, Policies must be rational and purposeful to enable them to stand the Test of time.

National Policy on Education

Prior to 1977 Nigeria operated an educational policy inherited from Britain at independence. The inability of this policy to satisfy the National aspirations of the country rendered it unpopular. In 1969 a National Curriculum Conference was organised which reviewed the Inherited curriculum and identified new national goals for Nigeria’s Education. A National Seminar was organised by the National Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) in 1973 Under the Chairmanship of Chief S. O. Adebo. This gave rise to the National Policy on Education in 1977 (Akangbou 1985; Bello 1986; Okoroma 2000).

The National Policy on Education is anchored on Nigeria’s philosophy On education as enunciated through the nation’s objectives. Nigeria Has five main national objectives as provided by the Second National Development Plan and accepted as the necessary foundation for the

National Policy on Education. They are the building of:

• a free and democratic society

• a just and egalitarian society

• a united strong and self-reliant nation

• a great and dynamic economy

• a land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens (FRN, 1998).

FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF EDUCATIONAL POLICIES IN Nigeria

The importance of education to the general well-being of mankind cannot be over-emphasized. Education is a fundamental human right.

The relationship between education and development has been established, such that education is now internationally accepted as a key development index. It is in recognition of this importance that the international community and governments all over the world have made commitments for its citizens to have access to education.

Over the years, Nigeria has expressed a certain level of commitment to education, with the belief that overcoming illiteracy and ignorance will form a basis for accelerated national development. However, regardless of the incontrovertible evidence that education is crucial to the development of the community and the nation, there remain inequalities in access to education. Despite its potential for leveling opportunities, education is pathetically used to perpetrate inequalities. Millions of poor people are still being excluded from the processes and outcomes of education. as was observed on the streets of Uselu were children ranging from 7-28yrs were found on the streets hawking all sorts of wares ranging from groundnuts to lacasera etc and even some of those going to school spend a better half insome trade other than school just augment for their fees

Laws basic regulations concerning and general state of education in nigeria

The National Policy on Education was enacted in 1977 and undergone three revisions, the most recent one in 2003. Since 1981, a number of decrees have been passed providing the legal framework of education in the country.

The Decree No. 16 of 1985 places special emphasis on the education of the gifted and talented children within the National Policy on Education.

The National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal Education, which was established by Decree No. 17 of 26 June 1990 and formally inaugurated on 5 July 1991, is charged with the responsibility of developing strategies, coordinating programmes, monitoring and promoting literacy and post-literacy programmes nationwide.

The Decree No. 96 of 1993 re-established the National Primary Education Commission (NPEC). It also provides the arrangement for funding primary education in the country.

In 1993, the National Minimum Standards and Establishments of Institution Amendments Decree No. 9 was promulgated. It provides for religious bodies, non-governmental organizations and private individuals to participate in the provision of tertiary education.

By a recent decree, all companies operating in Nigeria which have up to 100 employees on their payroll shall contribute 2% of their pre-tax earnings to the Education Tax Fund for the funding of education.

The most crucial strategy for sustainable education development in Nigeria is the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Scheme, which was launched in 1999. In May 2004, the Nigerian Legislature passed the UBE bill into law. The Universal Basic Education Act represents the most significant reform and addresses comprehensively the lapses of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) and the issues of access, equality, equity, inclusiveness, affordability and quality. In the context of Nigeria, basic education includes primary and junior secondary education. The main policy objective is to provide universal free and compulsory education at the primary and the first three years of secondary school, as well as to provide functional literacy for adult illiterates

       However The severe decline of the oil market in the early eighties, combined with the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), led to drastic reductions in spending on education. The result was unpaid teacher salaries, degradation of education facilities at all levels and strikes in universities/public schools, culminating in declining literacy rates of which same repeated itself some couple years ago under the supposedly-failed dispensation of Goodluck Ebele Jonathan were students stayed at home for a total of 1yr and 4months .in his tenure for paying deaf ears to the plights of a deplorable, depreciating, degrading and deteriorating  state of affairs in the various universities championed by  ASUU. Even UNIBEN to be precise had students standing for GST classes in student centre west wing basement

The poor state of education in Nigeria is aptly captured in the National Empowerment Development Strategy as follows:

‘…the delivery of education in Nigeria has suffered from years of neglect, compounded by inadequate attention to policy frameworks within the sector. Findings from an ongoing educational sector analysis confirm the poor state of education in Nigeria. The national literacy rate is currently 57 percent. Some 49 percent of the teaching force is unqualified. There are acute shortages of infrastructure and facilities at all levels. Access to basic education is inhibited by gender issues and socio-cultural beliefs and practices, among other factors. Wide disparities persist in educational standards and learning achievements. The system emphasizes theoretical knowledge at the expense of technical, vocational, and entrepreneurial education. School curricula need urgent review to make them relevant and practice oriented’

The challenge of policy implementation

For fifty-seven years of its existence as a sovereign nation the nation has been unable to successfully implement the National Policy on Education (NPE).  The policy which came into existence in 1997 after over four years of deliberations at various levels appeared to have solutions to virtually all core educational problems.

However, there are apparent serious problems in the area of implementation.  Some of them are highlighted in the following pages.

Philosophy Nigerian education

In Section 1 Sub-Section 5, the NPE states that the Nigeria's philosophy of education is based on the development of the individual into a sound and effective citizen.  The policy further stressed the full integration of the individual into the community, and the provision of equal access to educational opportunities for all citizens of the country at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels both inside and outside the formal school system.

With an estimated human population of 150,000,000 illiteracy is still as high. With 65 million Nigerians illiterate. UNESCO’s National Programme Advisor on Education, Dr Mohammed Alkali in 2015 revealed the results of a UNESCO survey No Nigerian Newspaper has a daily print run of 500,000 copies. There are thousands of educated but unemployed and unemployable youths Nigerian youths who cannot pay taxes. These people cannot be described in the words of NPE as "effective citizens."  There are also few educated elites who have looted the treasury so massively that they could hardly be described as "effective citizens."

Policy on language

The de facto National Policy on Languages (in Education) recognizes the multidimensional, multi-lingual three tier political-polity which tries to capture the multi-ethnic and, ipso facto, multi-lingual polity which Berlin and the British have hammered into a rough-hewn existence.
The Policy provides for:
(i) Mother-Tongue (MT) and\or Language of the immediate community (LIC) as the Language of initial literacy at the pre-primary and junior, primary levels, and of adult and non-formal education.
(ii) The three major(national) Languages - Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba at L2 as the languages of national culture and integration.
(iii) English - the official language - as the language of formal literacy, the bureaucracy, secondary and higher education, the law courts, etc.
(iv) Selected foreign languages especially, French, and Arabic, as the languages of international communication and discourse. These are the languages for which language villages have been set up. In terms of unstated policy, the NPE policy on languages: 
some many decades after, French is only being learnt in a few public/private primary and secondary schools.  Many Nigerian schools have no French teacher.

Policy on pre primary education

The National Policy on Education in Section 9 sub-section 79 suggested that there should be Teachers Registration Council.  Between 1977 and 1993 nothing was done to establish the Teachers Registration Council. In 1993 Decree 31 established the council. For another six years nothing was done to implement the provisions of the decree until 1999 when the first Registrar and Chief Executive of the Council was appointed.  To date, only few teachers have been registered while many still do not know of its existence.

Frequent changes in policies

Politics and frequent changes in government tend to negatively affect the implementation of the National Policy on Education.

Professor Ajayi, one time Provost of Federal College of Education (FCE) Osiele, Ogun State in Nigeria made this observation:

Within the eight years (1991-1999) that I served as Provost, the nation passed through five different regimes (Babangida till 1993, Shonekan for less than four months in 1993, Abacha 1993-1998, Abubakar 1998-1999, Obasanjo 1999-2007).  Within this period I had to operate under eight Ministers of Education. The same thing happened at the state level. Each of the Presidents, Ministers, Governors and Commissioners had their own different conceptions and policies on education that they tried to implement during their tenure.  With such instability in the system of governance, coupled with constant changes in "Ministers of" “Ministers for” and "commissioners for," one should not be surprised at the level of the crises the nation's education system has witnessed over the years and the inconsistency and often contradictory nature of the educational policies and practices. It’s one step forward and two steps backward."

A new system of education

Presently, the Nigerian government has come up with another system of education tagged 9-3-4 system. The first one known as 6-3-3-4 was never fully implemented, and now this.   Mrs. Bola Mosuro, the Proprietress of Access Universal College, Lagos lamented:

"Our problem in this country is that we often pick and drop policies as we want. In the United States the two tier secondary school system is still in operation delivering wonderful results.  There is nothing wrong with the 6-3-3-4 system. We simply have not implemented it well and now we have picked another one."

Policy on science and technology

A study carried out by Dayo Odukoya  Ph.D Less than 50% of graduates of our tertiary institutions are products of science and technology institutions. Graduates of humanities and social sciences are far more than that of science and technology.  This is contrary to the National Policy on Education which recommended 70% admission into science and technology programmes.

Policy on technical colleges

While the NPE puts the ratio between secondary and technical vocational education/schools at 3:1,Dr Odukoyo discovered in 2007 Nigeria has over 5,100 secondary schools with enrolment of 4,448,991 as against technical colleges of only 169 with enrolment of 43,354 representing ratios of 37:1 and 102:1 respectively.

According to the policy, technical colleges are expected to feed polytechnics just as secondary schools are to feed universities.  The prevailing situation however is that the total products of our technical colleges represent only 17% of available spaces in polytechnics. So right from the on-set the mission of technical colleges concerning feeding polytechnic is not being met.  Consequently, the country tends to be producing more theoreticians than technology experts.

Differential Remunerations for Graduates of Polytechnics and Universities

As long as entrants of Technical Colleges cum Polytechnics are classified as the poorer students emanating from the Junior Secondary Schools [JSS] while it is the ‘bright’ JSS students that are admitted into Senior Secondary Schools [SSS] and Universities, there is bound to be differential treatment of their respective graduates.

For Africa to keep pace with technological development around the world, something quick and pragmatic has to be done to redress the serious problem that tends to be eroding the little gains of the 6-3-3-4 education system.  Perhaps all Polytechnics should be upgraded to Universities of Technology.

Policy on private universities

In 1960/61 when there were only two universities in Nigeria while the total student population stood at only 1,395. This figure rose to 32,282 in 13 universities by 1975, 116,822 in 27 universities by 1983 and 180,871 in 31 universities by 1990.  Even currently when there is a plethora of  private universities, federal universities and state universities these are still far from accommodating the number of students who qualified for admission.

In fact, out of over 1 million Nigerian students that applied for university admission less than 25% could be absorbed.  This is due to the poor implementation of the policy which had long ago recommended greater expenditure on education to create more space for the youths.

Policy on ict

The Federal Executive Council approved a national IT policy in March 2001 and the implementation started in April with the establishment of the National Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA), charged with the implementation responsibility. The policy recognized the private sector as the driving engine of the IT sector.

The policy is however overdue for  review due to changes and advances in ICT globally and in Nigeria. Consequently, government inaugurated the Nigerian National ICT for Development (ICT4D) Strategic Action Plan committee to develop a new ICT policy vis-à-vis action plan/roadmap for the nation.

Emerging Issues with ERNWACA(Educational Research Network for West and Central Africa) Nigeria

In recent years ERNWACA Nigeria has been conducting policy-oriented researches such as: Impact of Non-Formal Education [NFE] on the Mitigation of Spread of HIV/AIDS; Evaluation of NTI programme; Evaluation of University Education Curriculum;  Link Between Engineering Training  Programmes and Graduates’ Productivity and recently the studies on  Mode of Implementation of Nigerian Secondary School Curriculum - Towards Socio-economic Empowerment of Youth; and Universal Basic Education & Socio-Economic Prospect of the Girl-Child in South-South Nigeria.

The major challenge is in translating the core research findings into implementable policies. Consequently, many of our past research reports have been virtually lying on the shelves. This is quite pathetic as this is tantamount to waste of colossal financial, manpower and material resources.

Other challenges facing ERNWACA Nigeria in conducting education research for policy formulation and implementation are enumerated in the following slides:

Need for Good Understanding of the Process of Policy Formulation

There is dire need for a good understanding of the process of policy formulation. This understanding is apt to positively influence our research methodology and reporting system. It is also likely to enhance the acceptability of our research findings for policy formulation.

Lobbying and advocacy

There is also a dire need for a thorough understanding of the principles and operation of lobbying and advocacy.   It is becoming common knowledge that the correct application of these indispensable principles is vital for the successful translation of research findings into national educational policy formation and implementation.

Logistic problems

There is also a dire need for a thorough understanding of the principles and operation of lobbying and advocacy.   It is becoming common knowledge that the correct application of these indispensable principles is vital for the successful translation of research findings into national educational policy formation and implementation.

Policy Formulation versus Policy Implementation

Furthermore, it is one thing to succeed in getting our research findings translated into national policies; it is another ballgame altogether getting them implemented. This may often necessitate further follow-up and intensive lobbying.

Part of the problem here has to do with incessant changes and paucity of technocrats within the government. Lack of understanding of the power of well-formulated policy and diligent implementation in effecting educational and national development apparently account for this

Implications for national development

Education is an instrument for excellence. It librates people from Poverty and ignorance. Ukeje (1966:155) believes that “education is For life and for living. It is an investment in people which pays untold Dividends to the society. When that investment is not made or is Made inadequately, the society suffers a loss”. Presumably it is in Recognition of this importance of education that the 1999 constitution Of the Federal Republic of Nigeria provided at Section 18 as follows:

(1) Government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are Equal and adequate educational opportunities at all levels.

(2) Government shall promote science and technology.

(3) Government shall strive to eradicate illiteracy; and to this end,

Government shall as and when practicable provide:

(a) free, compulsory and universal primary education

(b) free secondary education

(c) free university education, and

(d) free adult literacy programs (FRN, 1999:18).

It is in pursuance of this constitutional provision that the National Policy on Education was developed and accepted. Nigeria’s Educational philosophy is also anchored on this constitutional

Mandate. The importance of education to national development is no longer In doubt. The issue that agitates the mind is the effect of poor Implementation of educational policies on the development of Nigeria. It was Ake (1988:2) who said that “education is the process Of becoming the best we can be”. With the numerous crises in the Educational system engendered by poor policy implementation, it Is doubtful whether its recipients are really becoming the best as Expected. If not, what is the fate of Nigeria? The euphoria with which Nigerians welcomed the National Policy on Education has died down and been replaced with despondency due to

Non-performance. The National Educational Research Council Report Of the Baguada Seminar of September 1980 captured this euphoria as Expressed in that seminar thus:

The introduction of the new system of education is

Deemed crucial to the implementation of the philosophy of

“developmentalism”. It is hoped that when fully operational, it

Will help transform the society and launch the nation along the

Developmental trajectory that will lead us to a state of parity

With the advanced world (Baguada Report 1980:7).

In the same state of mind, Ukeje (1986:8) noted that “the 6-3-3-4 System is more than a structure. It is a new process, a new orientation and a new activity, which hopefully will lead to new individuals and A new and bright future”. The ineffective implementation of the

Various programs canvassed by the National Policy on Education has Relegated these hopes and optimism to back-stage. Nigeria is caught Between one ‘evil’ (the rejected British educational system which is Still unofficially practiced) and one ‘saint’ (the accepted American Educational system which we can neither officially nor unofficially Practise). Consequently, the conservatism of the British educational System which helped us to maintain our traditional values and a Healthy society has been lost. On the other hand, the American system

With its potential for technological development and growth has failed To make any difference in our society because we have not learned Anything. In the present circumstance, the dream of Nigeria to move to a state Of parity with the advanced world appears to be a mirage. Ukeje

(1986) was full of hope that the new system would lead to new Individuals and a new and bright future. Eighteen years later, the System has not produced new individuals and the future appears

More hopeless than in 1982 when the policy commenced. If Nigeria continues to hide under the umbrella of the National Policy on Education conscious of the implementation problems, our

National aspirations will suffer greater impediments. Our national Development will only rely on miracles, if any. The British system Of education was found inadequate for Nigeria’s developmental Purposes. It is also true that the American system has failed in Nigeria

Because of our sociological circumstances. We need not continue to Deceive ourselves with a national educational policy that has been Found unworkable else in the future there will be no policy to lay Hold on.

Recommendations/Way forward

There is an urgent need for a workable educational policy for Nigeria. It is for this reason that the following recommendations are advanced

v  Establish a standard for conducting research [research method] and for reporting – from problem identification, title formulation, proposal writing, sampling, instrument development and validation, fieldwork, data analysis, result presentation, abstract writing and referencing.

v  Institute an annual specialized seminar/training session on the significance and process of policy formulation and implementation for researchers and for key government functionaries in all ERNWACA member countries.

v  Institute an annual specialized training on effective advocacy and lobbying strategies (same audience)

v  Evolve research themes that have strong bearing on the formulation and implementation of national educational policies.  This should be applicable with our on-going Annual Small Grant program.

v  Budget adequately for these seminars/training programmes and for the necessary logistics to follow-up and follow-through on getting our research findings adopted for policy formulation and implementation.

v  These activities should be implemented by the National Coordinators and monitored closely by the Regional Coordinator.

v  The present national educational policy should be disbanded on Account of its non-workability.

v  An indigenous system of education fashioned after the models Operated by Asian countries shouldnt be adopted. Ideas that are Alien to the cultures of Nigeria should be avoided because they are Bound to fail.

v  Education should be removed from the sphere of politics. It should Be made purely a constitutional matter, but not as provided by the 1999 constitution which allows escape routes for political leaders. When the constitution states that "Government shall as and when Practicable provide free education at different levels”, the right To education has been denied the citizens and political leaders May be non-committal as the provision of education becomes a Discretionary matter.

v  The entrenchment of education as a non-negotiable right of every Citizen in the constitution would help check corruption in that Sector. Corruption is largely responsible for the failure of the National Policy on Education and other policies in Nigeria.

v  Mismanagement of educational resources at any level should Be made a serious offence attracting a minimum of five years’ Imprisonment. This should be included in the next constitution Of Nigeria. It is believed that in the presence of corruption no new System of education can succeed.

v  Nigerian governments and leaders should develop the necessary Political will for education to grow.

v  Every effort should be made to eradicate corruption from all Spheres of Nigeria’s various programs so that available resources  Can be utilized for public interest.

Conclusion

From the literature reviewed, we can conclude that the Implementation of educational policies in Nigeria are constrained by The following factors.

• Most educational policies are well focused but the planning is Often defective, making implementation difficult.

• Resources available for the implementation of a given educational Policy are often over-estimated and thereby elicit unrealistic Expectations that fail to materialize.

• Since educational policies are usually translated into plans before implementation, studies have shown that the costs of Implementing such plans have often been under-estimated. Most

Educational policies have become stalled at the planning stage.

• Reliable data have not been a popular feature in planning Education in Nigeria. This situation has not facilitated the effective Implementation of educational plans.

• The implementation of educational policies is also often hindered By the interplay of politics, which may sometimes relegate reality To obscurity.

• Qualified teachers are not in sufficient numbers in the entire Educational system in Nigeria. Studies have already confirmed this To be true of the U.B.E. Scheme, as well as the secondary education Program. The tertiary level of education, where hundreds of Students receive lectures hanging out of windows and doors and Taught by one lecturer, is also confirmation.

• Facilities such as classrooms, offices, laboratories, workshops, Libraries, power, water et cetera are basic requirements in every School system. These have been found to be grossly inadequate In most Nigerian educational institutions. The Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) has confirmed this in its numerous Publications.

• Insufficiency of funds for implementing educational policies In Nigeria is a problem that has recurred in almost every Implementation study that has been carried out. The importance Of funds for carrying out any activity need not be over-emphasised.

• Government lacks the political will for effective implementation.

• Corruption at all levels hinders the implementation of educational Policies and programs.

The cost of advocating and lobbying to get our research findings adopted for policy formulation and implementation is a far cry from the colossal  amount that have been spent on unutilized research efforts in the past decades. This colossal waste would be significantly reduced, and with time, totally eliminated by venturing to spend a little more on carrying advocacy/lobbing to a logical conclusion. This is the thrust of this paper. Let us give it a trial and a push. We shall surely get there

References

Adesina, O. (2004). The Guardian Newspaper, Monday, 1 November, p.16.

Adesina, S. (1977). Planning and educational development in Nigeria, Ibadan: Education Industries (Nigeria) Ltd.

Adighije, C. (2005). Saturday Sun Newspaper, 9 April, p. 5.

Aghenta, J.A. (1984). Towards a systems approach to the planning of Secondary education in Nigeria’, in Adesina, Segun and Ogusaju (eds.), Secondary education in Nigeria, Ile Ife: University of Ife Press.

Akagbou, S.D. (1985). The economics of educational planning in Nigeria, India: Vikas Publishing House, PVT Ltd.

Ake, C. (1988). ‘Quality education in a dwindling economy’, lecture delivered On the occasion of the 11th Convocation Ceremony of the Rivers State College of Education, Port Harcourt.

Awokoya, S.O.(1981). ‘The parameters of educational planning’, in Adesina, S. (ed.), Introduction to educational planning. Ile Ife: University of Ife Press.

Baguada Report (1980). Perspectives of quantities and qualities in Nigerian Education, NERC Report of the Baguada Seminar.

Bello, J.Y. (1986). ‘The 6-3-3-4 system: another exercise in futility?’, a Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Nigeria Association Of Educational Administration and Planning at the University of Port Harcourt.

Dr. Dayo Odukoya Education & Development Consultant ERNWACA, Faculty of Education, University of Lagos dayoodukoya@gmail.com 234-8034730219

Ejiogu, B. (2005). Daily Sun Newspaper, Monday, 11 April, p.10. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). The Constitution of the Federal Republic Of Nigeria, Abuja: Federal Ministry of Information.

Hodges, A. (2001). Children’s and women’s rights in Nigeria: a wake-up Call, Abuja: National Planning Commission and UNICEF.

Hoy, W.K. & Miskel, C.G. (1978). Educational administration: theory, Research, and practice, New York: Random House.

Kerr, D.H. (1976). Educational policy: analysis, structure and justifi cation, New York: David mckay Company.